Migration

Introduction:

• Migration is a type of spatial mobility where individuals permanently relocate from one geographical area to another.
• The Census of India uses place of birth or residence to determine migration. Individuals who were born in a different place than where they are enumerated are considered migrants.
• Migration is one of the three main components of population change, along with fertility and mortality.
• Migration should not be viewed simply as a relocation of people, but as a fundamental factor in understanding the ever-changing spatial content and relationships within an area.

Background

• The recording of migration data in India dates back to the first Census conducted in 1881, where data was collected based on place of birth.
• A significant modification was introduced in the 1961 Census, which included two additional components: place of birth (village or town) and duration of residence (if born elsewhere).
• In the 1971 Census, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay at the place of enumeration was incorporated.
• Starting from the 1981 Census, information on reasons for migration was included and has been modified in subsequent Censuses.

Types of Migration:

In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases : 

(i) Place of birth-

• if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant)

(ii) Place of residence-

• In the context of the census, migrants by place of last residence refer to individuals whose place of enumeration is different from their previous place of residence.
• According to the 2011 census, out of the total population of 1,210 million in the country, approximately 455.8 million people, accounting for around 37% of the population, were identified as migrants based on their place of last residence.

Classification of migration.
Migration can be classified on the basis of cause, distance and duration of time as illustrated below:

International Migration

• International migration refers to the process of individuals relocating from one country to another, crossing international borders.
• International migration is of two types viz, out-migration of Indians to other countries and immigration into India from other countries.

Out-migration

• It refers to movement of Indians from India to some other country of the world

Three waves of indian diaspora

There have been three waves of Indian Diaspora at three different times in the history of India.

1.The first wave

• It took place during the British period when a large number of labourers were sent to Mauritius,Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana)
• Fiji and South Africa by British from Uttar Pradesh and Biha Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Surinamh-dy French and Dulch and by Portuguese from Goa, Daman and Diu to Angola, Mozambique to work as plantation workers.

2. The second wave

• 2nd wave of migrants went to settle in the neighbouring countries like Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunel and some African countries. 
• This is a recent development under which professionals, artisans, traders, factory workers went out of the country in search of batter quality of life. This trend is still continuing.

3. The third wave

• It started in 1960s and still continues to operate. 
• In this partod high profilo professionals like doctors, engineers etc, migrated out of India.
• By the end of the 19th country, a large number of Indians migrated to Sri Lanka and Malaysia to work as labourers in tea and rubber plantations respectively.

At present there are about five million Indians in Sri Lanka which account for about one third of the total population of that country.

• Similarly about 10 per cent population of Malaysia is of Indian origin.
• Most of the migrants to Sri Lanka and Malaysia are from Tamil Nadu and they had been fighting a long war for their rights. Some labourers from Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Odisha also migrated to these countries.
• Partition of Indian subcontinent and International Migration Partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 resulted in large scale migration of population from India to Pakistan and Bangladesh and vice versa. This has been termed as one of the greatest movements of human beings in the history of the world.

In-migration

• The population of present-day India is comprised of descendants of migrants who arrived from various parts of the world at different pre-historic and historic periods.
• Migrants in India include groups such as Dravidians, Aryans, Muslims, Mughals, Europeans, etc.
• The majority of international migrants in India come from Asian countries, followed by Europeans, Africans, Americans, and Australians.
• The highest influx of migrants into India has been from neighboring countries such as Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.
• A significant concentration of immigrants from neighboring countries, particularly Bangladesh and Nepal, is found in Assam and Uttar Pradesh.
• Approximately 96% of migrants in India originate from neighboring countries, with Bangladesh being the largest source, followed by Pakistan and Nepal.

Refugee Influx into India.

• Despite not signing the 1951 Refugee Convention, India has emerged as a significant destination for refugees over the past six decades.
• The influx of refugees into India has particularly increased from neighboring countries such as Tibet (China), Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Bangladesh.

1. Dalai Lama was allowed to set up a government in-exile at Dharamsala (Himachal Pradesh) in 1959. 

• This brought in a wave of Tibetan refugees and currently there are about 1,10,000 Tibetans in India.

2. Afghans:

• In 1979 about 60,000 Afghans fled to India when Soviet Union invaded that country.
• In 1992 and afterwards, thousands of Afghanistanis took refuge in ladia when Taliban captured power in that country.

3. Sri Lanka:

• The civil war in 1983 triggered first wave of Sri Lanka Tamil refugees to India. 
• By 1995 India and UNHCR repatriated 100,000 Tamil Sri Lankans as the war ended.

4.Myanmar: 

• Many people fled from Myanmar into Mizoram in 2004 in the wake of military oppression.

5. Bangladeshis.

• About 50,000 Chakma refugees fled Bangladesh into Tripura in 1988.

Reverse Migration:

The world wide economic succession in 2008 forced a large number of Indian overseas to return to their home land. This reverse migration gathered momentum in 2008 and countries to operate till date.

Net gainers and net lossers

• It would be of great interest to examine the states which were net gainers and net lossers with respect to interstate migration.
• Among the major losers where out migration has been more than in-migration, are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand. Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and a West Bengal.
• In contrast, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab and all Union Territories have gained in total population where the number in-migrants had been more than the number of out-migrants
• Net lifetime in-migration in Maharashtra was high
• All union territories and small states experienced increase in population through net inmigration, barring a few exception. Chandigarh (14.7 per cent) and Delhi (128 per cent) experienced substantially high in-migration.
• Delhi is the national capital and attracts a large number of people from the surrounding as well from far-off areas who migrate to this city in search of livelihood and better standard of life.
• Uttar Pradesh is the largest contributor to in-migration in Delhi which accounts for about 50 per cent of the total in-migration into Delhi. This is followed by Haryana, Rajasthan, Panjab, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
• There are other states also which have attracted in-migrants from far-off areas. 
• For example, Assam attracted labourers to work in its tea gardens in the past and in the recent years, this state has attracted technicians, professionals and skilled labour for its industries and administration.
• Maharashtra and Gujarat are twe industrially advanced states and have attracted labourers from a number of states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and Odisha.

Reasons for Migration

Employment

• The largest percentage of male migration takes place for the sake of work/employment.

Education

• Education is another important reason for migration. Rural areas, by and large, lack educational facilities, especially those of higher education and rural people have to migrate to the urban centres for this purpose. 
• Many of them settle down in the cities for earning a livelihood after completing their education

Family moved

• Movement of family due to number of reasons is also another cause of Migration

Marriage

• Among the females, the largest percentage of  migrate due to marriage.In fact marriage is a very important social factor of migration.

Business and natural calamities

• Business and natural calamities like drought, floods, etc.

"Pull' and 'Push' Factors

Pull factors

• Urban centers offer abundant employment opportunities in various industries, transportation, trade, and service sectors, making them attractive for potential migrants.
• The availability of modern amenities and facilities in cities adds to their appeal and acts as a pull factor for people from other regions.
• The term "pull factor" refers to the phenomenon where cities attract and draw individuals from outside areas due to the opportunities and advantages they provide.

Push factors

• Migration can be influenced by "push factors," which are circumstances or conditions that compel people to leave their place of origin.
• Unemployment is a significant push factor that drives individuals to seek opportunities elsewhere.
• Hunger and starvation can also force people to migrate in search of better access to food and resources.
• Lack of economic opportunities and prospects in rural areas can push individuals to move to urban or industrial centers.
• Push factors contribute to the displacement of individuals from their home villages to nearby or distant towns where they hope to find better living conditions and livelihood opportunities.

Consequences of migration

1.Demographic Consequences

• Migration results in the redistribution of population within a country.
• Rural-urban migration plays a significant role in the population growth of cities.
• Out migration from rural areas has a negative impact on the demographic structure of rural areas, particularly in terms of age and skills.
• Certain states like Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Eastern Maharashtra have experienced high levels of out migration, leading to imbalances in age and sex composition within these states.
• The recipient states also face similar imbalances in their demographic structure due to migration.

2.Social Consequences

• Migrants serve as catalysts for social change, bringing new ideas and technologies from urban to rural areas.
• Migration promotes intermixing and interaction among people from diverse cultures.
• It contributes to the evolution of a composite culture and helps break narrow considerations, broadening people's mental horizons.
• However, migration can also lead to negative consequences, such as anonymity, which creates a social vacuum and a sense of dejection among individuals.
• The prolonged feeling of dejection may drive individuals towards engaging in anti-social activities, including crime and drug abuse.

3. Economic Consequences

• Remittances from international migrants: Punjab, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu benefit from significant remittance inflows from their international migrants.
• Rural-urban migration and agricultural development: The success of the green revolution strategy in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh is attributed to migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha.
• Overcrowding and slum development: Unregulated migration to metropolitan cities in India has led to overcrowding and the development of slums. States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Delhi have experienced the negative consequences of unregulated internal migration, with the growth of slums in industrially developed areas.

4.  Environmental Consequences

• Large-scale rural-urban migration contributes to overcrowding in cities, which strains the existing infrastructure.
• The rapid and unplanned growth of cities due to migration often leads to the proliferation of slums and shanty colonies.
• Overcrowding in cities puts pressure on natural resources, resulting in over-exploitation.
• Cities face significant challenges such as water scarcity, air and water pollution, inadequate sewage disposal, and poor management of solid waste due to overpopulation.
• The environmental consequences of overcrowding include the depletion of resources, increased pollution levels, and inadequate waste management systems.

5.  Other Consequences

• Migration has a deep impact on the status of women. Generally, male members of the family migrate from rural to urban areas and leave their wives behind at home. This puts tremendous physical and mental pressure on the women.
• Migration enhances remittances to the source region but there is heavy loss of human resources, particularly those of skilled people.

MIGRATION STREAM

Some Basic terms

• Intradistrict migrants are the persons born (or with last residence) outside the place of enumeration but within the same district.
• Inter-district migrants are the persons born (or with last residence) outside the district of enumeration but within the same state.
• Interstate migrants are the persons born (or with last residence) outside the state of enumeration but within India.
• Immigrants are the persons born (or with last residence) outside the country.

Based on the rural or urban nature of the place of birth (or of last residence) and the place of enumeration, internal migrants can be further classified into following four migration streams:

(a) rural-to-rural,
(b) rural-to-urban,
(c) urban to-urban,
(d) urban-to-rural.

Intra-state Migration by Place of Last Residence

Rural-to-Rural,

• This type of migration contributes to maximum Percentage of migration in India
• Females are maximum contributor to this migration

Rural-to-Urban,

• It is 2^nd largest group or type of migration
• Females are maximum contributor to this migration

Urban to-Urban,

• It is 3^rd  largest group or type of migration
• Females are maximum contributor to this migration

 Urban-to-Rural.

• It is 4^th  largest group or type of migration
• Females are maximum contributor to this migration

Inter-state Migration by Place of Last Residence

Rural-to-Rural,

• It is 2^nd largest group or type of migration
• Females are maximum contributor to this migration

Rural-to-Urban,

• It is  largest group or type of migration
• Males are maximum contributor to this migration

Urban to-Urban,

• It is 3^rd  largest group or type of migration
• Females are maximum contributor to this migration

Urban-to-Rural.

• It is 4^th  largest group or type of migration
• Females are maximum contributor to this migration

Following conclusions can be drawn from the study of migration patterns:

1. Nearly 85 per cent of the intra state migrants were born in rural areas, while 63 per cent were born in rural areas in inter-state migration category.
2. About three fourths of all migrants in the intra-state category were women; mainly because of marriage.
3. Over half of the intra-state migrants moved from rural to rural areas. Such people migrated in search of employment on farms or other establishments located in the rural areas.
4. Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are the major areas from where out-migration takes place.
5. West Bengal, Maharashtra, Assam, Punjab, Delhi, Chandigarh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are mostly in migrating states or union territories.
6. Disparities in economic development seems to be the main cause of migration in case of males and marriage in case of females.
7. Densely populated rural areas with increasing pressure of population on land register out migration. Big cities, mining and industrial centres, plantation agriculture etc. are the main "Pull" factors behind in-migration.

Comparatively small states had larger share of inter-state migrants in their populations. By contrast, larger states such as Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh displayed relatively smaller proportion of inter-state migrants. Jammu and Kashmir enjoys special status under

The urbanized and small sized union territories of Chandigarh and Delhi had high percentage of inter state migration.