The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1931)
Background:
- Decline of national movement after Non-Cooperation Movement withdrawal and Swarajist programme.
- Hindu-Muslim unity dissolved into communal riots in mid-1920s.
- Signs of anti-imperialist movement emerged from 1928 onwards, including peasant movements and workers' agitations.
- Political and economic tensions between British Domination and Indian interests.
Gandhi's 11 point demands-
To carry forward the mandate given by the Lahore Congress, Gandhi presented 11 demands to the government and gave an ultimatum of January 31, 1930 to accept or reject these demands
The 11 demands made by Mahatma Gandhi to the British Government were:
- Reduce expenditure on Army and civil services by 50 per cent.
- Introduce total prohibition.
- Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
- Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of firearms licence
- Release political prisoners.
- Accept Postal Reservation Bill.
- Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio
- Introduce textile protection.
- Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
- Reduce land revenue by 50 per cent.
- Abolish salt tax and government’s salt monopoly.
These demands were aimed at improving the economic and political conditions of Indians, and Gandhi hoped that their acceptance would lead to a peaceful resolution of the conflict between Indians and the British. However, the British government did not accept these demands, leading to the escalation of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Dandi March (March 12 – April 6, 1930)
- Gandhi, along with a band of 78 members of Sabarmati Ashram, was to march from his headquarters in Ahmedabad through the villages of Gujarat for 240 miles.
- The historic march, marking, the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement, began on March 12, and Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up a handful of salt at Dandi on April 6.
Gandhi gave the following directions for future action –
- Wherever possible civil disobedience of the salt law should be started.
- Foreign liquor and cloth shops can be picketed.
- Refuse to pay taxes.
- Lawyers can give up practice.
- Public can boycott law courts by refraining from litigation.
- Government servants can resign from their posts.
- All these should be subject to one condition—truth and non-violence as means to attain swaraj should be faithfully adhered to.
- Local leaders should be obeyed after Gandhi’s arrest.
Spread of the Civil Disobedience Movement in India
Introduction:
- After Gandhi’s symbolic act of breaking the salt laws at Dandi, the Civil Disobedience Movement gained momentum across India.
Gandhi's Arrest:
- On May 4, 1930, Gandhi was arrested for announcing that he would lead a raid on Dharasana Salt Works on the west coast.
Switch to Other Forms of Mass Struggle:
As the onset of Monsoon made salt manufacture difficult, the Congress switched to other forms of mass struggle such as:
- Non-payment of revenue in ryotwari areas.
- No-chowkidara-tax campaign in zamindari areas.
- Violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces.
Radicalisation of Social Issues:
- The chosen social issues were carefully broadened and radicalised through populist initiatives to garner greater support for the movement.
Social Boycott of Police and Administrative Officials:
- A social boycott of police and lower-level administrative officials led to many resignations, weakening the British administration's hold over India.
Satyagraha at Different Places
Introduction:
- A brief survey of the Civil Disobedience Movement in different parts of the subcontinent during the 1930s.
Tamil Nadu
- C. Rajagopalachari organized a march to break the salt law.
- Followed by picketing of foreign cloth shops and anti-liquor campaign.
- Non-violent movement, but violent eruptions of masses and police repression occurred.
- Unemployed weavers attacked liquor shops and police pickets at Gudiyattam, and peasants rioted at Bodinayakanur in Madura.
Malabar
- K. Kelappan, a Nair Congress leader famed for the Vaikom Satyagraha, organised salt marches.
- P. Krishna Pillai defended the national flag in the face of police lathi-charge on Calicut beach in November 1930.
Andhra Region
- District salt marches were organized in east and west Godavari, Krishna, and Guntur.
- Several sibirams (military style camps) were set up to serve as the headquarters of the Salt Satyagraha.
- Merchants contributed to Congress funds, and the dominant caste Kamma and Raju cultivators defied repressive measures.
- Mass support like that in the non-cooperation movement (1921–22) was missing in the region.
Orissa
- Under Gopalbandhu Choudhuri, a Gandhian leader, salt satyagraha proved effective in the coastal regions of Balasore, Cuttack, and Puri districts.
Assam
- Civil disobedience failed to regain the heights attained in 1921–22 due to divisive issues.
- Successful student strike against the Cunningham Circular was seen in May 1930.
- Chandraprabha Saikiani incited the aboriginal Kachari villages to break forest laws, which was denied by the Assam Congress leadership.
Bengal
- Bengal Congress divided into two factions led by Subhas Chandra Bose and J.M. Sengupta.
- Calcutta Corporation election resulted in the alienation of most Calcutta bhadralok leaders from the rural masses.
- Communal riots were seen in Dacca (now Dhakha) and Kishoreganj, and little participation of Muslims in the movements.
- Midnapur, Arambagh, and several rural pockets witnessed powerful movements developed around salt satyagraha and chaukidari tax.
- Surya Sen’s Chittagong revolt group carried out a raid on two armouries and declared the establishment of a provisional government.
Bihar
- Champaran and Saran were the first two districts to start salt satyagraha.
- In landlocked Bihar, manufacture of salt on a large scale was not practicable, and at most places, it was a mere gesture.
- Very powerful nochaukidari tax agitation replaced the salt satyagraha.
- Sale of foreign cloth and liquor dramatically declined, and administration collapsed in several parts like the Barhee region of Munger.
- The tribal belt of Chhotanagpur (now in Jharkhand), saw instances of lower-class militancy.
Peshawar:
- Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan’s educational and social reform work politicised the Pathans.
- Gaffar Khan started the first Pushto political monthly Pukhtoon and organised ‘Khudai Khidmatgars’, the ‘Red-Shirts’ who were pledged to the freedom struggle and non-violence.
- Mass demonstrations took place on April 23, 1930, after Congress leaders' arrest in NWFP, leading to a week-long reign of terror and martial law.
- A section of Garhwal Rifles soldiers refused to fire on an unarmed crowd.
- This upsurge in a province with 92% Muslim population left the British government nervous.
Sholapur:
- Textile workers went on a strike from May 7, 1930, and burnt liquor shops and other symbols of government authority.
- The activists established a virtual parallel government which could only be dislodged with martial law after May 16.
Dharasana:
- On May 21, 1930, Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Manilal (Gandhi’s son) led a raid on the Dharasana Salt Works.
- The unarmed and peaceful crowd was met with a brutal lathi-charge which left 2 dead and 320 injured.
- This new form of salt satyagraha was eagerly adopted by people in Wadala (Bombay), Karnataka (Sanikatta Salt Works), Andhra, Midnapore, Balasore, Puri, and Cuttack.
Gujarat:
- A determined no-tax movement was organised in Anand, Borsad, and Nadiad areas in Kheda district, Bardoli in Surat district, and Jambusar in Bharuch district.
- Villagers crossed the border into neighbouring princely states with their families and belongings and camped in the open for months to evade police repression.
- The police retaliated by destroying their property and confiscating their land.
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces:
- Defiance of forest laws such as grazing and timber restrictions and public sale of illegally acquired forest produce.
United Provinces:
- A no-revenue campaign was organised, calling on zamindars to refuse to pay revenue to the government.
- A no-rent campaign was launched against loyalist zamindars.
- The campaign picked up speed in October 1930, especially in Agra and Rai Bareilly.
Manipur and Nagaland:
- Rani Gaidinliu, a Naga spiritual leader, raised the banner of revolt against foreign rule at the young age of 13.
- She urged the people not to pay taxes or work for the British and outwitted the British till October 1932 when she was finally captured.
- She was later sentenced to life imprisonment.
Extent of Mass Participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement
Introduction:
- The Civil Disobedience Movement was a pivotal moment in India's fight for independence. It was marked by widespread participation from various sections of society.
Women:
- Women played a leading role in the movement.
- Gandhi had encouraged women to participate actively.
- Women were involved in picketing outside shops selling foreign cloth, opium dens, and liquor shops.
- The movement was liberating for Indian women and marked their entry into the public sphere.
Students and Youth:
- Along with women, students and youth were prominent participants in the boycott of foreign cloth and liquor.
Muslims:
- Muslim participation was not as high as in the 1920-22 non-cooperation movement.
- Muslim leaders had appealed to stay away from the movement.
- Active government encouragement to communal dissension also discouraged participation.
- Still, some areas, such as NWFP, saw overwhelming participation.
- Middle-class Muslims were active in Senhatta, Tripura, Gaibandha, Bagura, and Noakhali.
- Muslim leaders, shopkeepers, lower class people, and upper-class women were active in Dacca.
- The Muslim weaving community in Bihar, Delhi, and Lucknow was also mobilized.
Merchants and Petty Traders:
- Traders' associations and commercial bodies were active in implementing the boycott, especially in Tamil Nadu and Punjab.
Tribals:
- Tribals were active participants in Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
Workers:
- Workers participated in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Sholapur, etc.
Peasants:
- Peasants were active in the United Provinces, Bihar, and Gujarat.
Conclusion:
- The Civil Disobedience Movement witnessed mass participation from various sections of Indian society.
- It was a defining moment in India's struggle for independence and marked a turning point in the country's history.
The British Government’s Response to the Civil Disobedience Movement
Round Table Conference:
- In November 1930, the British government called the first round table conference to discuss the reforms proposed by the Simon Commission.
- However, the Indian National Congress chose to boycott it, while some other groups attended. The conference didn't achieve any significant constitutional changes without Congress’ involvement.
Attempt at Negotiation:
- Viceroy Lord Irwin tried to convince Congress to participate in the second round table conference.
- An agreement was reached between Gandhi and Irwin, where the government promised to release political prisoners not accused of using violence, and Congress promised to end the civil disobedience movement.
Congress Participation:
- Vallabhbhai Patel presided over the Karachi session in 1931, where it was decided that Congress would participate in the second round table conference. Gandhi represented Congress at the September 1931 session.
The Gandhi-Irwin Pact and its Outcomes
The Gandhi-Irwin Pact:
- The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was a significant event in India’s struggle for freedom.
- It was signed on March 5, 1931, between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India.
The pact included the following points:
Agreements from the Government:
- Immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence.
- Remission of all fines not yet collected.
- Return of all lands not yet sold to third parties.
- Lenient treatment to those government servants who had resigned.
- Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption (not for sale).
- Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing.
- Withdrawal of emergency ordinances.
Rejections from the Government:
- Public inquiry into police excesses.
- Commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrades’ death sentence to life sentence.
Agreements from the Congress:
- To suspend the civil disobedience movement.
- To participate in the next Round Table Conference on the constitutional question around the three lynch-pins of federation, Indian responsibility, and reservations and safeguards that may be necessary in India’s interests
Outcomes of the Pact:
The Gandhi-Irwin Pact had the following outcomes:
- Many British officials in India and Great Britain were outraged by the idea of a pact with a party whose avowed purpose was the destruction of the British Raj.
- Despite boycotting the first Round Table Conference, members of the Congress Working Committee attended the second conference in September 1931.
- Bans on the Indian National Congress were lifted, and it was permitted to hold peaceful meetings that were not intended to be anti-establishment.
The significance of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact :
End of 1st phase of Civil Disobedience Movement:
- The pact marked the end of the Civil Disobedience Movement launched by Gandhi in 1930.
- The British Government agreed to release all political prisoners, and the Indian National Congress agreed to suspend the movement.
Participation in Round Table Conferences:
- The British Government agreed to invite the Indian National Congress to participate in the Round Table Conferences, which were convened to discuss the future of India.
- This was a significant achievement for the Indian National Congress, as it provided an opportunity to participate in the constitutional reform process.
Recognition of Congress as the Sole Representative of Indians:
- The British Government recognized the Indian National Congress as the sole representative of the Indian people.
- This was a significant achievement for the Indian National Congress, as it gave them a legitimacy to negotiate with the British Government on behalf of the Indian people.
Lifting of Salt Tax:
- The British Government agreed to lift the salt tax, which was a major demand of the Indian National Congress.
- This was a significant achievement for the Indian National Congress, as it was a symbolic issue that had galvanized the masses.
- Improvement in British-Indian Relations: The pact marked an improvement in the British-Indian relations, as it provided a platform for dialogue and negotiation.
Karachi Congress Session—1931: Key Resolutions
Introduction:
- In March 1931, the Indian National Congress held a special session in Karachi to endorse the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. However, the event was also marked by the execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru just six days before the session, which led to black flag demonstrations during Gandhi's route to Karachi.
Congress Resolutions at Karachi:
- Despite the tense atmosphere, the session was highly productive and resulted in the adoption of two significant resolutions.
Resolution on Fundamental Rights:
The Congress adopted a resolution on Fundamental Rights that guaranteed various rights and freedoms, including:
- Free speech and free press.
- The right to form associations and assemble.
- Universal adult franchise.
- Equal legal rights irrespective of caste, creed, and sex.
- Neutrality of state in religious matters.
- Free and compulsory primary education.
- Protection of culture, language, script of minorities and linguistic groups.
Resolution on National Economic Programme:
- The Congress also adopted a resolution on the National Economic Programme that aimed to provide economic freedom to the masses.
The resolution included:
- Substantial reduction in rent and revenue for landholders and peasants.
- Exemption from rent for uneconomic holdings.
- Relief from agricultural indebtedness.
- Control of usury.
- Better working conditions including a living wage, limited hours of work, and protection of women workers in the industrial sector.
- The right of workers and peasants to form unions.
- State ownership and control of key industries, mines, and means of transport.
Significance:
- The Karachi Resolution became the cornerstone of the Congress's political and economic program for years to come.
- By explicitly spelling out what Swaraj meant for the masses, the Congress aimed to end the exploitation of millions of people.
Conclusion:
- Overall, the Karachi Congress session of 1931 was a crucial moment in India's fight for independence.
- Despite the tragic events leading up to the session, the Congress was able to adopt important resolutions that set the groundwork for a free and equal India.
Second Phase of Civil Disobedience Movement:
I. Introduction
- The Civil Disobedience Movement entered a second phase around September-October 1930.
- This phase was marked by mounting pressures, poor peasant and tribal militancy, declining support among urban traders, and the imprisonment of leading Congress leaders.
II. The Truce Months, March-December 1931
- The Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn immediately after the signing of the Gandhi-Irwin pact in 1931.
- Gandhi agreed to attend the second Round Table Conference on British terms.
- Despite this, the impact of the Pact and Truce months was not entirely negative.
- The British had to negotiate with Gandhi on terms of equality and courtesy for the first time, and this was deeply resented by many die-hard officials.
- Released Congressmen went back to their villages and towns with undiminished confidence, almost as victors.
- The Congress sought to establish itself as the alternative, more legitimate centre of authority, starting arbitration courts to settle local disputes, and trying to mediate conflicts.
III. 1932-34: Civil Disobedience Again
- The Congress Working Committee decided to resume the Civil Disobedience Movement.
- On January 4, 1932, Gandhi was arrested.
- The British government issued a series of repressive ordinances, ushering in a virtual martial law, under which Congress organizations at all levels were banned, arrests were made of activists, leaders, sympathisers, properties were confiscated, and Gandhi ashrams were occupied.
- People responded with anger, and the response was massive, though unprepared.
- Other forms of protest included picketing of shops selling liquor and foreign cloth, illegal gatherings, non-violent demonstrations, celebrations of national days, symbolic hoistings of national flag, non-payment of chowkidara tax, salt satyagraha, forest law violations, and installation of a secret radio transmitter near Bombay.
- This phase of the civil disobedience movement coincided with upsurges in two princely states—Kashmir and Alwar.
- This phase of the movement could not be sustained because Gandhi and other leaders had no time to build up the tempo, and the masses were not prepared.
- As a result, Gandhi decided to withdraw the Civil Disobedience Movement in April 1934.
IV. Notable Gains Made During This Phase
- As the mass movement gradually declined in the face of ruthless repression, political ‘realism’ combined with economic calculation of certain sections of Indians pushed Indian big business towards collaboration with the British.
- The Bombay Millowners concluded the Lees-Mody Pact in October 1933, aligning with Lancashire out of fear of Japanese competition.
V. Conclusion
- The second phase of the Civil Disobedience Movement was marked by a mix of gains and setbacks.
- Although the movement could not be sustained, it played a critical role in shaping India's struggle for independence.