Features of Indus valley civilization-
1.Economics-
1.1 Trade-
- The Indus Valley Civilization’s economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport by bullockdriven carts as well as boats.
- Archaeologists have discovered a big canal and docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal
It can be sub divided into 2 parts-
A.Internal Trade
- As there was Barter system in Harrapa therefore internal trade of goods was there.
- Further, the presence of seals and uniform weights implied an existence of a regulated internal trade network.
- Baluchistan supplied copper, lead, jasper, agate and silajit to the Harappan cities via southern Sindh.
- The sites in Sindh further supplied materials like shell and flint to the sites in Punjab.
- Punjab was also connected to Baluchistan through the Salt range and hill outliers.
- Therefore different routes were used for internal trades.
- The inland trade was carried through bullock cart and caravan.
- Two – wheeled carts were an important mode of transport for people and goods – Bronze and terracotta models of carts have been found at various sites
B.External trade-
- Trade, both by land and by sea, thrived in the Harappan society.
- A number of seals of Indus origin have been found at various sites in Mesopotamia.
- This indicates that trade flourished between the two civilizations.
- There is literary as well as archaeological evidence for Harappan trade with Mesopotamia.
- From the Meospotamia records we know of their trade with Meluka (Indus Valley region).
- Other than Mesopotamia, sites located in the gulf areas like Bahrain, Failaka, Sharjah and the Oman peninsula,There were some seals,artifacts etc. That were found having Indus origin.
- Besides West Asia, Harappans also had trade contacts with Afghanistan and Central Asia
2.Agriculture-
- The basic economy of the Indus Valley people was necessarily agriculture.
- Cultivation was on an extensive scale, facilitated largely by the presence of rivers.
- The Indus region was quite fertile.
- There were facilities for irrigation.
- The main products were wheat, barley and cotton etc.
- Wheat has been found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa; barley at Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Kalibangan.
- Harappa has also given evidence of watermelon, seeds, peas and dates, rice occurs at Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rangpur.
- Millets have been identified at Harappa, Surkotada and Shortughai.
- Copper sickles have been recovered from several sites.
Domestic animals-
- Domestic animals found at the sites include cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig ,camel , elephant, dog, cat, ass and others.
- Hunting of animals was an important activity. Animals hunted include wild buffalo, deer, wild pig, ass, jackal, rodents and hare
3.Industry-
Though a large number of people engaged in agriculture, trade and industry also flourished during this period
Mahenjodaro
- Mahenjodaro was a great industrial centre. Probably ,weaving was an important industry.
- The discovery of a large number of spindles and spinning wheels in the houses of the people confirmed it.
Harrapa-
- The people of Harrapan culture were using the cotton and wollen clothes in a large scale.
- The people also knew the art of dying.
- There are indications that bead industry was in flourishing condition.
- Beads of semi-precious stones were manufactured, even for export purpose.
- The remains of bead industry are noticed from the excavation site of Lothal.
- Pottery was another important industry.
- Probably industries for manufacturing copper and bronze implements were also there.
- Several weapons like axes, saw, knives, spears etc. made of bronze have been discovered.
3.Crafts-
Pottery-
- The most common pottery occurring in the Harappan cities is the red ware.
- It isa wheel-made and baked pottery.
- There are both plain and decorated pots.
- Ochre was used to produce red colour for paintings and black was manufactured by combining dark reddish-brown iron oxide with black manganese.
- The paintings or motifs were executed in black and were mostly geometric or naturalistic Design
Metallurgy
- Harappans were aware of copper, gold and silver metallurgy.
- Copper was widely used, and it occurs in the form of weapons, agricultural tools etc.
- Copper was alloyed with tin, arsenic, lead, nickel and zinc in various combination
Bead-Making
- The most famous artefacts manufactured by Harappans were their beads.
- Some like carnelian beads were an important export item.
- The beads of both precious metals, and semi-precious stones like agate, jasper, steatite, and lapis lazuli were known
Faience
- Several faience objects in the form of beads, bangles, earrings, figurines have been recovered from several Harappan sites.
- It is an artificial material manufactured from quartz
Shell
- Processing A wide variety of shell objects like bangles, ladles, spoons, inlay pieces, decorative objects have been recovered from the Indus sites.
Weights and Measures-
- The urban people of the Indus Valley also needed and used weights and measures for trade and other transactions.
- The weights and measures were very accurate. Standardization extended to units of weights and measure.
- Cubical weights made of chert; chalcedony, black stone, etc. have been found at all excavated sites.
- The system is binary in the smaller weight (1, 2, 4,8,16, 32, and 64) and decimal in the higher weights (160, 320 and 640).
- The largest weight found in Mohenjodaro weighs 10.865g
4.Religion-
- No temples or shrines of the Harappan Civilization have been found
Animal worship
- Seals engraved with the figures of animals like the humped bull, elephant and rhinoceros suggest that these animals were probably considered sacred.
Three-headed God
- The image of a three-headed male God sitting cross-legged and surrounded by animals, like the lion, the rhinoceros, the buffalo and the elephant with two deer under his seat is found on many seals
Peepal tree-
- It seems that they were worshiper of nature and worship of peepal tree was also there.
Mother goddess
- Mother Goddess or Nature Goddess was the main religious deity of the time.
- In one of the idols, a plant is seen coming from a woman’s abdomen and, in another, a woman is sitting with legs crossed.
- Sacrifices were also in vogue to please the Mother Goddess
Shaivism
- In one of the seals, a yogi is surrounded by animals and has three faces with a crown of two horns.
- This image is considered to be that of Lord Shiva.
- Pashupati seal was found at Mohenjodaro.
- This seal has a male figure seated on a dais.
- His heels are joined, and toes point downward.
- Both his arms are covered with bangles, and rest on the knees.
- This position is very similar to mulabandhasana in yoga.
- The historic Siva was associated with yoga and was known as mahayogi.
- The figure is also surrounded by six animals: elephant, rhinoceros, water buffalo, tiger, two ibexes/antelopes
The worship of the womb-
- Along with the worship of Shiva, the worship of the lingas or the womb was also in practice.
The Swastik
- The Swastik and the wheel symbol of some seals indicate the worship of Sun god
Disposal of the dead-
There seems to have been three methods:
A.Complete burials-
- The complete burial means the burial of the whole body, with some articles and other Offerings.
B.Fractional burials-
- Fractional burial means the burial of the bones collected after exposing the body to wild beasts or birds.
C. Cremation-
- In this technique,the dead bodies were burnt and the ashes were collected in pots and buried
5.Social Life-
5.1 Matriarchy
- On the basis of remains, we can say that society was matriarchal.
- Hence, Indus people revered Mother goddess very much. Women were seen with respect in the society.
- No traces of veil system are found.
- Main job of women was bringing up children and making Cotton
Lady bronze idol
- It seems idol of some lady dancer.
- This dancer is wearing a necklace in neck.
- She is covering her entire hands area and except neck, is nude.
- Her hairs are beautifully organized.
5.2 Social structure-
- There is no proof of any division of society into caste.
- The social life of the people was highly developed.
- Harappan society consists of different, occupational group such as farmers, hunter –gatherers, merchants, crafts people, sailors, rulers, carpenters, brick masons, well diggers, boat makers, shopkeepers, ritual specialist and so on.
- The affluent social groups would have comprised rulers, land owners and merchants
5.3 Food-
- The chief food items included wheat, barley, meat, rice, peas, milk, vegetables and fruits
5.4 Others-
- The citizens used a script, which was primarily pictorial and yet not deciphered.
- Indus people had a knowledge of medicinal plants.
- Chess was the favourite game of its citizens.
- Discovery of rattles, whistles, sound-creating elephant and clay toys points towards the presence of several varieties of toy
6.Art,Architecture and planning -
6.1 Sculpture
- The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of workmanship.
- Figures of men and women, animals and birds made of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.
- Statues whether in stone, bronze or terracotta found in Harappan sites are not abundant, but refined
Stone sculptures-
There are two beautiful stone statuettes and a limestone statue from Mohenjo-Daro
Priest-king-
- The best preserved sculpture from Mohenjo-Daro is a statue piece representing a head and a bust of a male figure.
- The figure of the bearded man, interpreted as a priest, is draped in a shawl coming under the right arm and covering the left shoulder.
- This shawl is decorated with trefoil patterns.
- The eyes are a little elongated, and half-closed as in meditative concentration.
- The nose is well formed and of medium size; the mouth is of average size with close-cut moustache and a short beard and whiskers; the ears resemble double shells with a hole in the middle.
- The hair is parted in the middle, and a plain woven fillet is passed round the head
Bronze sculptures:
- From Mohenjo-Daro, we get a bronze statue, of 'dancing young girl'.
- It is cast in the round and except for the feet, is excellent preservation.
- The statue is just four and half inches high.
- The legs are bent with the left slightly forward
- The right hand is on the hip, the left arm covered almost entirely with bangles, hangs loosely.
- The hair is tucked at the back in a heavy plait that rests against the right shoulder
Bull-
- The bronze figure of a bull from Mohenjodaro deserves mention.
- The massiveness of the bull and the fury of the charge are eloquently expressed.
- The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right and with a cord around the Neck
6.2 Terracotta -
- The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human form are crude in the Indus Valley.
- They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan.
- The most important among the Indus figures are those representing the mother goddess.
- In terracotta, we also find a few figurines of bearded males with coiled hair, their posture rigidly upright, legs slightly apart, and the arms parallel to the sides of the body.
- A terracotta mask of a horned deity has also been found.
- Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered in terracotta.
6.3 Seals-
- More than five hundred seals have been discovered at different sites. These are made of terracotta and small in size.
- Seals were mostly made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc.
The Harappan seal
- The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, made from steatite.
- Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered.
- The most remarkable seal is the one depicted with a figure in the centre and animals around.
- The seals have different images of different animals as well as some human figures
6.4 Pottery-
- The potters craft during the Indus valley civilizations was fairy well-developed and the potters were quite a visible artisan group.
- Most of the pottery is pinkish in color. But a substantial part of itis treated with red slip and sometimes black painted decoration.
- Plain pottery is more common than painted ware
6.5- Beads and Ornaments-
- Necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger -rings were commonly worn by both sexes, women wore girdles, earrings and anklets.
- Hoards of jewellery found at Mohenjodaro and Lothal include necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones, copper bracelets and beads.
- Bead makers craft also was one of the important crafts of Indus valley people.
- The beads are varied in form and material.
- Beads of gold, silver, copper faience, steatite, semi-precious stones, shell and pottery have been found at various sites.
- At Chanhudaro and Lothal,bead — makers shop have been discovered
7.Architecture and planing-
Drainage system
- The striking feature of the Indus towns was their drainage system.
- It was the best drainage system known to the world in ancient times.
- Drains were constructed on either side of the roads connected to a drain from each house.
- They were lined with bricks and were covered with slabs of stone, which could be removed in order to clean them the underground drainage system connects all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks
The houses
- The houses, built of burnt bricks, were constructed on both sides of the roads.
- There were covered drains along the roads, in which sewage from the houses flowed.
- Some houses had only one or two rooms while others had several, indicating different living quarters for the rich and the poor
Water supply-
- Indus civilization was watered by river Indus and her tributaries.
- There also existed private and public water supply arrangements.
- Most of the private houses at Mohenjodaro had wells.
- Each land had a public well.
Streets-
- The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular Blocks
Residential area
- Below the citadel was the residential area of the town where the merchants, artisans and craftsmen lived.
- The whole area was divided into blocks by wide roads, which formed a grid.
- Sun-dried and baked bricks were used for construction of houses.
- They were single or double storeyed.
- All houses had a courtyard around which there were rooms
Town Planning
- Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro reveal that all these cities were similarly planned.
- They were divided into two parts—a raised area with large buildings called the citadel at the western end and a lower town.
- The citadel was probably the seat of the government and overlooked the lower town.
- The ruler or the administrator lived here along with the nobles
Some of the public Buildings-
The Great Bath-
- The Great Bath is one of the best-known structures among the ruins of the Harappan Civilization excavated at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, Pakistan.
- Archaeological evidence indicates that the Great Bath was built in the third millennium BCE, soon after the raising of the "citadel" mound on which it is located.
- The great bath is 180 feet long and 108 feet wide.
- It have four entrances.
- It consists of a large open quadrangle in the center with galleries and rooms on all sides.
- In the center of the quadrangle is a large swimming enclosure.
- It has a flight of steps at either end and is fed by a well situated in one of the adjoining rooms.
- The water is discharged by a huge drain with a corbelled roof more than six feet in height.
The Granary-
- To the immediate south – west of the Great Bath, was the granary.
- It consisted of a podium over which stood 27 blocks of kiln-burnt bricks, arranged in three rows
Phase -4
- This is the last phase of Harrapan civilization and in this phase we can see the decline of this civilization.
- By the end of eighteenth century BC, two major centre of this civilization; Harappa and Mohenjodaro, were totally destroyed.
- Other centres of this civilization too lost its existence gradually.
- There is no definite reason detected for the fall of this civilization
Decline of Indus Valley civilization-
There were different point of views regarding decline of this civilization and they are as follows-
A.Geographical reasons-
These reasons include-
1.Floods and Earthquakes-
- It appears from the records of the principal excavators that in Mohenjodaro various periods of occupation were separated by evidences of deep flooding.
- This can be inferred from the fact that the houses and streets of Mohenjodaro were covered with silty clay.
- R.L. Raikes supported this theory of flooding.
- Excavations reveal that Mohenjo-Daro itself was flooded morethan once.
- Chanhudaro was also twice destroyed by massive inundations
2.The Shifting Away of the Indus-
- This concept was supported by Lambrick .
- He believes that changes in the course of the river Indus could be the cause of the destruction of Mohenjodaro.
3.Increased Aridity and Drying Up of the Ghaggar
- This concept was supported by D.P. Agarwal and Sood and it states that due to drying up of this mighty river the areas near Rajasthan or along this river got affected
B.Other Reasons-
Barbarians
- Some scholars are of the view that the Aryan invaders destroyed the Indus cities.
- According to a dominant view, the major blow was given by a group of 'Barbarians' who began to migrateinto India a little before the middle of the second millennium B.C.
- The archaeological remains such as thick layer of burning (in Baluchistan), half dozen groups of human skeletons belonging to the later phase of occupation at Mohenjo-Daro may also indicate that the city was invaded