Archaeological evidences -
- First time the study of the Indian antiquities was initiated by scholars like Sir William Jones, who in 1774 founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Some of the contributor to archeology-
Europeans
- Dr.Buchanon, Hamilton, James Princep, Sir Alexander Cunningham, Sir John Marshal
Indian
- R.D. Banerjee, Dayaram Sahani, and K.N.Dixshit
Types of Archaeological evidences-
It has following subtypes-
1.Numismatics-
- The study of coins is known as Numismatic.
- The circulation of coins as medium of exchange was started probably in Vedic period.
- These ancient coins were known as Nishka, Suvarna, Karshopana, Shatamana and Pada.
- The earliest specimens of the coins are found from the 6th century B.C. They are made of Silver.
- These coins bear the stamps of one to five punches. More than one punch was used to stamp the coins.
- It is because of its manufacturing techniques; these coins are called as 'Punch Marked Coins'.
- These Punch Marked coins have been found in almost all parts of India
- It means that there was a common currency almost throughout India before the Maurya .
The earliest coin(4th Century B.C)
- The earliest die struck coins have been assigned to the 4th Century B.C. These are found at Taxila and only one side of a coin was used.The other side was plain.
- The earliest coins which have been discovered by archaeologist in the subcontinent are punch – marked coins made mostly of silver and copper.
- They are usually rectangular, sometimes square or round on the basis of their manufacturing technique.
- These coins were made punched with various natural symbols include geometric designs, plants,birds, animals, the sun, wheel, mountain, tree, branches and human figures at the time of providing and are of different shape and weight.
- Later on, the double die coins were struckby the rulers since 2nd Century B.C.
- These coins are found at Ayodhya, Kaushambi, Mathura etc. Some of these coins bear some inscription in Brahmi script
Indo-Greek coins-
- They bear the name and portrait of the issuing ruler of the obverse coins of the Sakas, Parthians and Kshatrapas follow the basic features of Indo Greek coinage
The Kushana coins-
- For the first time, gold coinage with legends in Greek, Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts was introduced by the Kushans.
- Most of the Kushan coins are bilingual, having Greek inscription on obverse and Kharosthi inscription on the reverse side.
- Kushana coins have the figure, name and title of the king on the obverse.
- On the reverse are deities belonging to the Brahmanical, Buddhist, Greek, Roman etc.
The Gupta coins-
- They issued Gold, Silver,Copper and also Lead coins.
- The obverse depicts the reigning king in various poses, usually martial ones, but there are interesting instances of coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I showing them playing the vina or flute.
- The reverse of the Gupta coins have religious symbols indicating the king‟s religious affiliations.
- The most common Gupta coin is that which shows the king holding a bow in his left hand.
- The other dynasties such as the Satavahanas,the Shaka – Kshatrapas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Gurjara Pratiharas,the Rashtrakutas, the Cholas, the Cheras etc.also issued their own coins
2.Inscriptions-
- The study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy.
- An inscription is any writing that is engraved on seals, stone, pillars, rocks, copper plate, temple walls, bricks, clay, wood, shells, pottery etc.
Epigraphy
- Epigraphy includes deciphering the text of inscriptions and analysis the information they contain
Palaeography
- The study of the old writing used in inscriptions and other old records is called palaeography.
- The objects which were used for engraving inscriptions in India were of various types such as lithic, metallic, earthen and wooden object,pottery, bricks, shells, ivory plaques and other objects
The earliest records-
- The earliest records in writing in India are attributed to the Indus valley people.
- However, this script is still undeciphered .
- Most of the earliest inscriptionsare in Brahmi and Kharosthi Scripts.
Some Important Scripts-
Brahmi Script-
- Brahmi Script is written from left to right.
- Brahmi is the oldest Indian script and dates back between 3rd Century B.C. to 7th A.D.
- It remained the main script of writing in India nearly for one thousand years.
Kharosthi Script-
- The Kharoṣṭhī script is an ancient Indic script used by the Gandhara culture of ancient Northwest India (primarily modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and North India) to write the Gāndhārī language (a dialect of Prakrit) and the Sanskrit language.
- An alphasyllabary, it was in use from the middle of the 3rd century BCE until it died out in its homeland around the 3rd century CE.
- During the reign of Ashoka, we get a clearevidence of engraved records, incised on imperishable rock or stone surface in either Brahmi or Kharoshthi script.
During the period between3rd Century B.C. and 7th Century A.D. Brahmi script underwent some paleographic changes after every two hundred years and hence, the script of different periods came to be known by different terms such as—
a) Ashokan Brahmi (e.g. Ashokan rock edicts)
b) Satavahana Brahmi (e.g. Inscriptions of the Satavahanas)
c) Gupta Brahmi (e.g. Inscription of the Guptas) etc.
The Ashokan inscriptions-
- The Ashokan inscriptions which are in a number of different languages and scripts, but mostly in the Prakrit language and Brahmi Script, i.e., written from left to right. But some were also inused in the kharosthi script, i.e. from right to left.
- The deciphering of Ashokan inscriptions by James Princep in 1837 was one of the great wonders of archaeology.
- The Brahmi of Ashoka‟s inscriptions seems a fairly developed script and it must have had a prior history of at least a few centuries.
Some of the famous Inscriptions-
Junagarh Rock inscription-
- The Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman is considered as an early example of chaste Sanskrit, written in mid second century AD.
- It mentions that one of Chandragupta Maurya’s governors, Pushyagupta, was responsible for building a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawar.
- This lake was repaired during the time of Rudradaman-I. Later it again repaired by Parnadatta during the Skandagupta reign.
Maski Inscription-
- It is an archaeological site in the Raichur district of Karnataka.
- It lies on the bank of the Maski river which is a tributary of the Tungabhadra.
- It was the first edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name Ashoka in it instead of ‘Devanampriya’ or ‘Piyadassi’.
- The inscription remains a dharma shasana, and tells the people to follow the tenets of Buddhism.
Mahrauli Inscription / Garuda Pillar
- The Mahrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a hill near the Beas and was brought to Delhi by a King of Delhi.
- Established by Chandragupta-II of Gupta dynasty as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu.
- This pillar credits Chandragupta with conquest of the Vanga Countries by his battling alone against the confederacy of the enemies united against him
Nasik Inscription
- The achievements of Gutamiputra Satkarni were mentioned in Nasik Inscription that were composed by his mother Gautami Balasri.
- The Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara and Avanti and defeated the Saka King Nahapana and restored the prestige of his dynasty by reconquering a large part of the former dominions of the Satavahanas.
Khalsi
- The Rock edicts of Khalsi, also spelled Kalsi, are a group of an Indian rock inscriptions written by the Indian Emperor Ashoka around 250 BCE.
- They contains some of the most important of the Edicts of Ashoka. The inscription in Khalsi contains all the Major Rock Edicts, from 1 to 14.
- They were discovered in Khalsi, a village in Uttarakhand, northern India, by Alexander Cunningham about 1850.
Aihole Inscription-
- Aihole in Karnataka was the first capital of Chalukyas.
- The inscription found at Meguti Temple popularly known as Aihole inscription witnessed many historical events of Chalukyas.
- The inscription is written in Sanskrit and it is in the Kannada script.
- It mentions about the defeat of Harshavardhana by Pulakeshin II and the victory of Chalukyas over Pallavas.
- It also mentions about the shifting of the capital from Aihole to Badami.
- They were written by Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakeshi II.
Nanaghat Inscription
- The Nasik and Nanaghat inscriptions are the major sources that gives detailed information about the Satavahana empire.
- The Nasik inscription was made by Gautami Balasari and Nanaghat inscription was issued by Naganika.
Hathigumpa inscription -
- In Udaygiri hills of Odisha, talks about the achievements of Kharvela of Kalinga, a chedi ruler.
- It consists of 17 lines in the Prakrit language and in the Brahmi script
Kanheri Caves Inscription-
- Located in Brahmi script, related to Satvahanas perio
Halmidi Inscription-
- It is oldest inscription in the Kannada script.
Mandsaur Inscription-
- It was by Kumaragupta and was written by Vattasbhatta.
Sohagura and Mahasthan inscriptions -
- It probably belonged to Chandragupta Maurya’s reign deal with famine relief measures
Bhanugupta’s inscription at Eran-
- It has first inscriptional evidence of Sati
Kandahar Inscription-
- It is a famous bilingual edict in Greek and Aramaic written during Ashokan period
Sohgaura inscription
- It has been received from the Gorakhpur district of present-day Uttar Pradesh.
- This is a copper plate.
- This is also a Mauryan article.
- It describes the granary.
Ayodhya Inscription
- This is the inscription of the Shunga ruler Pushyamitra Shunga.
- It is written in Sanskrit and Brahmi.
Hathigumpha inscription
- This inscription is located in the Udayagiri district of Orissa state.
- It is related to the Chedi ruler Kharavela.
Takht-e-Bahi inscription
- This inscription is located in the Peshawar province of Pakistan.
- This is the inscription of Gondophernes.
- It is written in Kharoshthi
Other Inscriptions-
- Eulogy of Gautamiputra Satakarni in the Nasik cave Inscription.
- Eulogy of Samudragupta on Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
- Eulogy of Skandagupta on Bhitari Stone Inscription.
- Eulogy of king Kharavela in Hathigumpha Inscription. etc.
Note- Ashokan inscription will be discussed later on
3.Monuments-
- Ancient buildings like temples, palaces and forts are known as monuments.
- The excavation of ancient sites at Taxila, Saranath and Rajgir have illuminated various aspects of life which otherwise would have been unknown to us.
- The caves of Khandagiri and Udayagiri in Orissa, the caves of Mirzapur and Bhimbhetka, the caves of Ajanta, Ellora, and Elephanta in Maharastra are priceless treasures of Indian art, painting and architecture
4.The Sculptures
- The sculptural art, since the time of Indus valley to the massive sculptures of later days is the tremendous progress registered by the Indians.
- In fact, religious zeal combined with artistic talents, resulted in the creation of beautiful images (i.e. Sculptures).
- These sculptures depict the religious or philosophical concept of the time.
5.Artefacts
- An artefact is something made or given shape by man, such as a tool or a work of art, specially an object of archaeological interest.
- The ancient artefacts help historians form a picture of cultural and religious life of ancient societies.
- The stone tools, pottery, buttons, jewellery and clothing found at various sites provide information about the life of early man.
Other sources -
Paintings , Pottery and some other Antiquities