Sources of Ancient India (part-1)

Sources of Ancient India can be classified under the following main categories:

A.Literary

B.Archaeological

C.Foreign Accounts

A. Literary

Indian literature is further divided into two sub categories

i) Religious literature

ii)Non-Religious literature

i) Religious literature-

1.The Vedic Literature:

• The earliest known literature from the Indian subcontinent is in Sanskrit.

• The word veda is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘vid’ which means ‘to know’. Veda means knowledge.

• They are oral literature par excellence.

• They are traditionally regarded as ‘heard’ or revealed texts .The contents of the Vedas were handed down orally from generation to generation.

Shruti and Smriti

Shruti-

• The Vedas are traditionally regarded as Shruti i.e. ‘heard’ or revealed texts, words said to have been uttered by God Brahma in the ears of the first Man.

• They were handed down from one generation to the next with emphasis on memorization.

Smriti-

• Smiriti literally means “that which is remembered,” and it is entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature.

• It comprises Vedanga, Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, Upangs etc.

• They are also called as the Sutras — which form part of the post Vedic literature

There are Four Vedas —

1.1 The Rigveda

1.2 The Yajurveda

1.3 The Samaveda

1.4 The Atharvaveda

1.1 -The Rigveda -

• The Rig Veda is the most ancient and worlds oldest sacred literature. The Rig Veda may be assigned to 1500 – 1000 B.C.

• The Early Vedic literature consists primarily of the samhita of the Rigveda, comprising 1028 hymns in praise of various gods, intended to be used as a mean of invoking the deities and soliciting their support.

• The hymns or Suktas' are grouped into ten mandalasor books.

• It throws light on the political, social, economic and religiouslife of the Vedic Aryans.

• It also gives us historical information relatingto the progress of the Aryans in India.

• Later Vedic literature includes the samhitas of the `Yajurveda', 'Samaveda' and the 'Atharvaveda'.

1.2- The Yajurveda:

• It deals with the details of the performance of rituals.

• It contains the formulas for the religious sacrifices which are borrowed from the Rigveda.

• It is divided into two parts viz. Shukla `Yajurveda' i.e. white and Krishna Yajurveda i.e. black.

• The Shukla Yajurveda is concerned with Samhita and the Krishna Yajurveda deals with Sacrifices.

• In general, it was meant to be a guide books for priests performing sacrifices.

1.3- The Samaveda:

• Samaveda is a collection of melodies.

• It contains information in musical forms.

• It is the earliest work in Indian music.

1.4 The Atharvaveda:

• The Atharvaveda deals with spells, magic, charms and is a prayerbook of the common people meant for application at the humbler domestic sacrifices.

• It is a sort of encyclopedia.

• It contains information on various topics.

The Samhita, The Brahmana, The Aranyakas and The Upanishadas-

Each Veda has the Samhita, the Brahmana, the Aranyakas and the Upanishadas as its four parts

The Samhitas or collections-

• Namely collections of hymns, prayers, incantations, benedictions, sacrificial formulas and litanies.

Four Samhitas are in existence which differ from each other-

• Rigveda Samhita.

• Atharvaveda Samhita.

• Samveda Samhita.

• Yajurveda Samhita.

The Brahmana, The Aranyakas and The Upanishadas-

Brahmana, the Aranyakas and the Upanishadas are called a commentaries on Veda

There are three types of commentaries.

Brahmanas-

• These are voluminous prose texts which contain theological matter, especially observations on sacrifice and the practical or mystical significance of the separate sacrificial rites and ceremonies

Aranyakas-

• The Aranyakas appearing at the end of the Brahmanas are forest text to be read by hermits in woods. it is Religious and Philosophical work composed in forest

Upanishadas-

• The Upanishadas contain the Vedic Philosophy. It is Philosophy of very high level.

• They are the sacred philosophical texts containing principles, which are to be taught by the Acharya to his trusted pupils sitting near him.

• It deals with the universal problemslike God, Soul, Death, Brahman and Atman.

• There are 108 Upanisads which contain a great variety of Philosophical ideas about sacrificed, the body and the universe

Chronology of vedas-

• Chronologically, it spans a thousand years with somebelonging to an earlier period and some portions to a later period.

• The Rigveda is the oldest and consists of ten books or mandalas. Books II-VII are the earliest.

• These are also called Family Books because each is ascribed by tradition to a particular family of rishis.

• Books II -VII of the Rigveda, believed to have been composed between1500-1000 BCE.

• The Later Vedic Literature includes Books I, VIII, IX and Xof the Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, Brahamanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

• These were composed between 1000 BCE to 500 BCE

Vedangas and Upavedas-

Vedangas and Upavedas form two supplementary sections of Vedic literature. Vedangas –

The six Vedangas are:

• Shiksha (phonetics) deals with pronunciation.

• Kalpa (ritual).

• Vyakarna deals with grammar.

• Nirukta deals with etymology.

• Chhandas deals with meter.

• Jyotisha deals with astronomy.

Upavedas:

• The Upavedas are supplementary Vedic literature.

• These Upavedas deal with secular subjects like Ayurveda (medicine), Dhanurveda (Archery art of war), Shilpa (architecture) and Gandharvaveda (Music).

Division of Upvedas-

Shrautasutra-

• It contains rules for the performance of the great sacrifices.

Grihyasutra-

• It contains directions for the simple ceremonies and sacrificial acts of daily life.

Dharmasutra-

• These are books of instructions on spiritual and secular law.

• They are the oldest law books.

Smriti Texts-

• These were composed between c. 200 BCE and 900 CE.

• Thesesmritis provide us valuable information about the Varnashrama system, duties of different Varnas, rights and privileges of the uppercastes etc

Post-Sutra texts are the Smriti texts which are -

• Manu Smriti.

• Narada Smriti .

• Yajnavalkya Smriti.

• Gautama Smriti.

• Narada Smriti.

• Brihaspati Smriti and Apastambha Smriti

2.Epic Literature:

• The two great Sanskrit epics of Hindus, the Ramayan of Valmiki and Mahabharata of Ved Vyas provide us useful information about the social, religious, economic and political conditions of the later Aryans.

• The period usually has been ascribed between 4th century B.C. and 2nd century A.D

The Ramayana-

• It was composed by sage Valmiki. Ramayan is in Adi Kavya (the earliest narrative poem) consisting of 24,000 verses divided into seven kandas (books).

The Mahabharata-

• It was the work of many  composers though it has been regarded by tradition as the products of Vyasa's genius only.

• The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses which has been divided into 18 parvas (books). 

3.Purans

• These are a category of texts attributed to Vyasa.

• There are eighteen Mahapuranas and numerous Upapuranas (secondary Puranas).

• The major Puranas were compiled by c. 400 CE.

The Puranas has five sections-

Sarga - the creation of the world

Pratisarga -re-creation

Manvantaras -periods of the various Manus

Vamsha -the genealogy of gods and rishis

Vamshanucharita -an account of royal dynasties

4.Sangam Literature

• The earliest Tamil texts are found in the corpus of Sangam literature.

• This is thework of poets who composed them over a period of three to four centuries.
• Theyassembled in colleges which were called Sangams and the literature produced in these colleges was called Sangam literature.

Number of Sangams

There were three Sangams or literary gatherings — the first and last at Madurai and the second at Kapatapuram.

1st and 2nd Sangam-

• There is no any literary work left for us from the First Sangama,all its works have perished.

• Of the second there survives only the early Tamil grammar Tolkappiyam

3rd Sangam-

Ettutogai

• The Poets of the third sangama wrote the Ettutogai (eight Anthologies).

• These contain200 poems ascribed to 200 authors.

Pattupattu

• Pattupattu means Ten songs containing 10 longer Poems of similar style belonging to later period.

The Kurul

• It contains the didactic Poems composed by Tiruvallavar, a Jain Poet

5.The Buddhist Texts-

• Among the non-Brahmanical and non-Sanskritic sources of early India, Buddhist and Jain literature constitute an important category

• Buddhism came in to existence in India, during the 6th Century B.C.

Tripitakas

It is the common name which is given to the Buddhist canonical literature and their commentaries in Pali language

It consist of three book-

1.The Sutta Pitaka

• It contains the discourses of the Buddha on various doctrinal issues in stories, poems and dialogue form.

The Five Nikayas-

It includes the five nikayas, viz. Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Auguttara, and Khuddukanikaya

• Dīgha Nikāya -containing long suttas.

• Majjhima Nikāya -containing suttas of middle length.

• Saṃyutta Nikāya -containing suttas organized according to content.

• Aṅguttara Nikāya - containing suttas arranged according to the number of doctrinal items under discussion.

• Khuddaka Nikāya -containing suttas not included in any of the other four nikāyas.

2.Vinaya Pitaka

• Deals with the rules and regulations of the monasticlife and the conduct of the monks.

• It containsinformation about the Buddha’s life, events and the story of Buddhism down to the first schism.

• It was written in 386 BCE

3.The Abhidhamma Pitaka

• It means ‘higher Dhamma’& contains matter related to Buddhist philosophy in accordancewith the Theravada school and contains lists, summaries and questions and answers

Other Budhists texts-

The Kathavatthu-

• It  is a part of the Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed by Mogaliputta Tissa, a great BuddhistAcharya, during the time of Ashoka

TheraGatha and TheriGatha-

Theragatha are called as Verses of Elder Monks and Therigatha as Verses of the Elder Nuns

• These are a collection of poems with verses which were narrated by the early members of the Buddhist Sangha.

• Therigatha is the first surviving poetry supposed to have been composed by women in India

Milindapanha

• It  consists of a dialogue between Indo-Greek king Menander and a Buddhist monk Nagasena

Buddhavamsa

• It is a collection of Buddhist legends which depict the previous incarnations of Buddha

Mahavamsha and Dipavamsha

• The Sinhalese chronicles Mahavamsha (‘GreatHistory’) and Dipavamsha (‘History of the Island’) entail the history of Buddhism from the time of the Buddha’s Enlightenment to third century BCE in India and fourth century in Sri Lanka

The Jataka Stories

• The Jataka Stories of Mahayana Buddhism deal with the previous births of the Buddha.

• About 549 Jataka stories have been collected and published

The Vaipulya Sutras-

• The Vaipulya Sutras deal with Buddhist doctrines in ninebooks.

• The Mahayana canonical works are called Vaipulya sutras.

Important Vaipulya Sutras-

• The Lalitvistara, the Pradnya Paramita and Saddharma Pundarika are the famous vaipulya sutras.

• They are important works in Sanskritdealing with Buddhism.

• The Lalitvistara contains the story of the  life of Buddha.

Budhists Scholars-

Nagarjuna,Chandrakirti,Dharmakirti , Ashvaghosha & Vasubandhu were the great Buddhist scholars

Nagarjuna

• Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika school of Mahayan Buddhism.

• He was contemporary of Satavahana King Gautamiputra.

Most important work of Nagarjuna is-

• Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, which means Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way.

• His theory is also known as Shunyavad “emptiness

Chandrakirti

• He was a disciple of Nagarjuna and a scholar at the Nalanda University.

• Prasannapadā is his main work which means happy words or clear words

Dharmakirti

• Dharmakirti lived in 7th century AD and was primary theorist of Buddhist Sankya.

• He was a teacher at the Nalanda University and a poet.

• He has written Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition.

• He has been called “Kant of India’.

Ashvaghosha-

• Ashvaghosha, who was the contemporary of the Kushans is regarded as top most Sanskrit writer.

• He wrote 'Buddha Charita', Sari Putta – Prakarana and Soundarananda in Sanskrit

Jain Literature-

• Jaina literature constitutes another important category of texts which are in a form of Prakrit called Ardha Magadhi

• Compared to the Buddhist literature, the number of Jain literary work is lesser.

• Mahavira's teachings were passed on from one generation to another by oral tradition.

• Two Jain Scholars Sthandila at Mathura and Nagarjuna at vallabhi made efforts to put the old Jain canon in a form acceptable to all Jains.

• The second Jain council at Vallabhi in the 5th Century A.D. brought about a final compilation of religious texts.

The Jain canonical texts are classified into 5 groups:

1.Twelve Angas-

• It explain the Jain Doctrines with the help of legends and stories and prescribe rules of conduct for monks.

2.The Twelve Upangas-

• These are dogmatic and mythological Upangas are associated with the Angas texts.

3.The Ten Prakirnas-

• These are in verse deal with miscellaneous topics regarding the doctrines of Jainism.

4.The Cheda sutras -

• It give the rules of discipline in monasteries and also Prescribe Penalties for breaking them

5.The Mula sutras -

• It deal with the basic doctrines of Jainism. Mula is the supreme penalty of the cancellation of monkhoch.

The Digambaras believe that most of the original Purvas are lost. Hence, the Digambaras do not accept the scriptures accepted by the Shvetambaras.

The Digambaras use the scriptures written by great Acharyas but based on the original teachings of Mahavira for their religious practices

Other Jain texts-

The Jaina Puranas -

• It deal with the life of Jaina saints known as Tirthankaras.

The Adi Purana-

• It narrates the life of the first Tirthankara Rishabha.

The Harivansa Purana -

• It gives a Jaina version of the Kauravas, Pandavas, Krishna and others.

The Bhadrabahu Charita -

• It provides information about the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.

Parishista Parva-

• The most important Jaina work from the point of view of history is the Parishista Parva prepared by Hemachandra, a Jain scholar.

ii)Non-Religious literature

• Apart from religious literatures we have also a large body of secular literature in the form of biographies, dramas, historical texts and scientific and technical works which provide us useful information about ancient Indian history.

• Such texts are used by historians as sources of information about the times in which they were composed

It is further divided into two parts-

1.Indian

2.Foreign account

1.Indian

1.1 - Biographical work-

Buddha Charita -

• Life of Buddha by Asvaghosha

Harsha Charita -

• Life of Harshavardhan by Banabhatta

Vikramadaeva Charita -

• Life of king Vikramaditya by Bilhana

The Gauda Vaho -

• King Yasho Varman‟s life by Vakpati

Rajatarangini-

• It was written by Kalhana during the 12th century A.D.

• It is the most famous among the local chronicles.

• It deals with the history of Kashmir upto the middle of 12th century A.D

Other-

Kumar Pala Charita by Hemachandra.

Prithivi Raj Raso by Chand Bardai.

1.2 - Kavya or Poetic literature

Magha -

• He wrote Shishupalvadha

Bharavi -

•  Wrote Kirtarjuniya

Kalidasa-

• He wrote Raghuvamsh aand Kumarsambhava

Banabhatta -

• He wrote Harshacharita

Dandin-

• He wrote Kavyadarsha and Doshakumaracharitra

Batti -

• Wrote Ravanavadha

Bilhana -

• Wrote Vikramankadevacharita.

1.3 - Sanskrit Dramas

Bhasa

• He wrote many dramas in Sanskrit.

• His Svapnavasavadatta is the best known play.

Kalidasa

• He wrote dramas such as Malavikagnimitra , Vikramorvashiyans Abhidnyanashakuntalam.

Vishakhadatta

• He wrote Mudrarakshasa and Devichandragupta.

Shudraka

• He wrote Mrichhakatika based on Bhasa's romantic play.

Bharata

• He Wrote the Natyashastra which is considered to be  the most authoritative treatise on Sanskrit dramaturgy.

Harshavardhana

Emperor Harshavardhana was a great scholar himself, he had also written three dramas namely -

• Ratanavali.

• Priyadarshika.

• Nagananda.

Bhavabhuti

• He wrote Mahaviracharitam, Malatimadhavam and Ultarramcharitam.

Bhattanarayaan

• He wrote Venisanhara.

Ashvaghosha

• He wrote Saundarananda

1.5- Literary work on science and medicine-

Charaka

• He wrote Charaka samhita

Vagbhatta

• He wrote Ashtanga sangraha.

Palakapya

• He wrote Hastyayurveda.

Sushruta

• He was the famous surgeon of ancient India who wrote Sushrutasamhita which gives us detailed information of diff aspects of surgery.

Aryabhatta

• He wrote on algebra, arithmetic and astronomy.

Varahamihira

• He wrote his valuable works on astronomy such as Parchasidhanta, Romaka and Paulisa.

Vatsyayana

• He wrote the Kamasutra on sexology and erotics.

Kamandaka

• He wrote Nitishastra.

1.6- Other-

Kautilya’s Arthashastra

• It is an important law book.
• The text is divided into fifteen books of which Book II and III may be regarded as being of an earlier date and seem to have been the work of different hands.

• It provides rich material for the study of early Indian polity and economy

Gatha Saptashati :

• Is a collection of 700 gathas or Poems composed by various poets its compilation is attributed to the Satavahana ruler Hala (1^st centuryA.D.).

• It was written in Maharashtri Prakrit and is like a folkliterature

Brihatkatha of Gunadhya:

• A large body of folk literature also exists in Sanskrit,consisting of fables. Stories with morals which have passed down from one generation to another

Grammer-

The works on Sanskrit Grammar were-

• Panini wrore Ashtadhyayi .

• Patanjali wrote Mahabhashya.

• Vararuchi  was also a grammarian

2.Foreign account

2.1 Irani Travellers-

Skylacs

• When Indian prosperity became matter of discussion in western nations, then in the beginning of 6th century BC, Iran king sent his messenger Skylacs to India, he came to India and studied its geographical condition.

• His description is quite interesting. Even emperor of Iran, Derium too has written about India

2.2- Greek Travellers

Aristobolus -

• He wrote his journey details in old age, but nowhis details are not available

Herodotus

• He was a Greek historian who never visited India, but believed in recording everything read or heard.

• He gives us information regarding the relations between India and Persia during the 5th Century B.C.

• Herodotus has recorded about the trees which gave wool, form which the cloths were made (i.e. cotton).

• He also gives details of fairy tales

Ktesias:

• He was a physician of the 5th Century B.C. who wrote his accounts on India.

• Like Herodotus, he had written about the relations between India and Persia

Later on few more writers wrote about India like-

Ptolemy, Nearchus, Onesicritus ,Aristobulus,Deimachus of Syria, Dionysuis of Egypt and Megasthenes

Indica of Megasthenes-

• Megasthenes was an ambassador of the Greek king Selucus Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya.

• He lived in the city of Pataliputra and wrote his accounts on India which he named as'Indica'.

• The original copy of this book has been lost in course of time.

• However, the other Greek writers have quoted the extracts form Indica in their works, and thus have been preserved only in fragments.

Information about India  in Indica as follows-

• India was a quadrilateral-shaped country bordered on the southern and eastern sides by the ocean.

• As far as the ocean, the Indus river constitutes the country's western and north-western borders

• The Indians, like the Greeks, lived off of fruits and wore animal skin clothing in their early days.

• Dionysus, according to the most renowned Indian academics, entered and conquered India.

• Indian soil is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron.

• A variety of tools, weapons, decorations, and other things are made from tin and other metals.

• India's plains are extremely fertile, and irrigation is commonly used.

• Rice, millet, a grain called bosporum, other cereals, pulses, and other food plants are the principal crops.

• India does not have any overseas colonies, and Indians do not have any colonies outside of India.

• Because of the plentiful food, clean water, and clear air, the Indians are taller than the typical person.

• They have a strong artistic background.

• Slavery is prohibited under a law enacted by ancient Indian sages.

It also provides information on our country, its soil, climate flora and fauna, the Mauryan administrative system etc.

the Indica of Megasthenes though sometimes, it is not free from exaggerations has been regarded as a good source of information and has a high historical value

Pliny

• He wrote 'Natural History' which gives an account of the Indian flora, fauna and minerals in the lst A.D

Ptolemy -

• He was a Greek geographer and wrote a geographical account of India in the 2nd A.D.

• His writing is based on scientific method.

• He also wrote a book entitled as 'Geography'.

• He has left a detailed account about the Indian ports and marts of the contemporary period.

Kosmos Indikopleustes- 

• He was another Greek trader who had lived at Kalyan in thane district of Maharashtra during the 6th CenturyA.D.

• In his account, he gives us information about the coastal areas, ports, other commercial centers, the trading business etc. which is a valuable account

'Periplus of the Erythrean Sea’

• It also gives us much information about India during the 1st A.D

Strabo-

• Also gives details on the physical geography of India

Quintus Curtius, Rufus(2nd CenturyA.D) were some other Romans who wrote about India and their writings have become a source of ancient Indian history.

2.3 -Chinese Travellers

Most important of Chinese visitors were Fahian, Huensang and Itsing

Fahien

• He has details of Chandragupta II.

• He confines himself to religious aspect only. Still his script has historical value.

• He was a Buddhist pilgrim.

• Almost fifteen years He spent in India learning Buddhism and visiting almost all the holy places associated with the life and career of Buddha

HuenTsang

• He came to India during Harshavardhan rule.

• He gave details on religious ,social, political, economical situation
• Hiuen Tsang visited India during the first half of the 7th CenturyA.D.

• His account titled as `Si-Yu-Ki' i.e. 'Records of the Western world' has proved to be a store house of accurate information about India

• He has recorded his observations about Indian kings, capitals, provinces, Buddhist Monasteries and centers of education such as Nalanda

Itsing

• He came to India in 7th century and studied for long in Nalanda and Vikramshila university.

• He too mentioned religious and social conditions of that time.

• Itsing does not mention names of any ruler in India, but indirect references to the political social and economic conditions of the Indians of that time are found in this work

Other-

Huilee

• Another writer Huilee is famous who wrote autobiography of Huensang.

• This too throws light on Indian history

Lamatara

• Among Tibetan writers, Lamatara is famous.

• His Granth Kangyur and Tangyur has description on India.

2.4-Muslim Travellers-

Suleiman

• In the middle of 9th century one Arabic traveller Suleiman came to India,his description gives information on pal and Pratihar Vansh

Al-Masudi

• He stayed in India in the middle of 10th century and has mentioned about Rashtrakut rulers.

• He and Al-Itakri as well as Ibn- Haukal all were traders and wrote their accounts which deal with the country and its inhabitants

Alberuni

• He came with Mahmud Ghazanvi. When Ghazanvi was busy plundering the nation, Alberuni was busy in studying Sanskrit.

• After studying Sanskrit he studied various subjects and got knowledge about our culture and civilization.
• After this study only, he wrote Tehkeek-e-hind.

• This is an important historical material of India.

• Though it has less political details, yet it is important from geographical perspective.

Firdausi (940 – 1020 AD) -

• It was the great Persian writer who has preserved some Indian legends in his famous book,

Shahnama' (Book of Kings)-

Shahnama' (Book of Kings) some other Persian works which have reference to Indian include –

• Jamit- ul – Twarikh (collection histories) byRashid Uddin

• Rauzat – us- safa by Mirkhond.

• Tarikh–i–Yamini by AI-Utbi.

• Taj-Ul-Masir by Hasan Nizami etc.