Later Vedic Age

Later Vedic Age-

The period between 1000 BC and 600 BC is commonly known as later Vedic Age

1.Sources of Later Vedic age-

1.1 Literary Sources-

• the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda, the Brahamanas, the Aryankas, the Upanisadas, the Sutras, the Puranas, the Ramayan and the Mahabharata etc.

1.2 Archaeological Sources-

1.2.1 Painted Grey Ware (PGW)

• The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age Indian culture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley in the Indian subcontinent, conventionally dated c.1200 to 600–500 BCE.

• Excavation of the area have brought to light nearly 700 sites inhabited for the first time.

• These are called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites because they were inhabited by people who used earthern Bowles and dishes made of painted gray pottery.

• The PGW culture cultivated rice, wheat, millet and barley, and domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses.

• Houses were built of wattle-and-daub, mud, or bricks, ranging in size from small huts to large houses with many rooms.

• It is dominated by bowls of two shapes, a shallow tray and a deeper bowl, often with a sharp angle between the walls and base

2.Settlement of later Vedic age-

• The Aryan tribes of Rig Vedic period or Early Vedic age like the Bharatas and Purus lost their power and influence and the tribes like the Kurus, Panchalas and the Kasis became very prominent.

• Soon the Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper portion of the Doab the area called Kurukshetra and they established their capital at Hastinapur (modern Meerut).

• The Panchalas who occupied the middle portion of Doab and established their capital at Kausambi.

• It spread up to Haryana, Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh.

Janapadas and Mahajanapadas

• Some of the chieftains carved out kingdoms for themselves and their tribes were called the janapadas.

• A number of janapadas combined to form large independent kingdoms called mahajanapadas. By the sixth century BC, sixteen mahajanapadas were established

3.Economy of Later Vedic age-

3.1 Agriculture-

• Agriculture continued to be one of the principal occupations of the people.

• Although very few agricultural tools made of iron have been found.

• Pastoralism was no longer the main subsistence activity of the people as it was in the Early Vedic period.

• Mixed farming led to the rise of sedentary settlements.

• The Satapatha Brahaman speaks at length about the ploughing rituals.

• In those days‟ even kings and princes did not hesitate to take to manual labour.

• Cultivation of Rice in Doab started.

• Cow, oxen, sheep, goat, dog, horse, donkey were their domesticated animals.

• Elephant was also tamed during the later Vedic Age.

3.2 Animal Husbandry

• Ranching was losing its appeal as with rising population, Aryans started settling at one place and started farming with the help of Iron.

• But it does not mean that Aryans were driving animals out of their houses.

• Many people had farming as well as animal husbandry business.

3.3 Industry

• Gold became important metal in this period.

• Mention of Tin and Lead is also found in later Vedic literature.

• The Rigveda mentions “ayas” which may refer to iron, though the archaeological evidence relates iron to the Later Vedic period.

• The Yajur Veda mentions “ayas” as Syama ayas, and the Brahmanas speak of Krishna ayas.

• Both the words refer to a black metal which means Iron

3.4 Trade-

• The Vedic texts Provide details about trade and trade through road and sea route were prevalent at that time.

• Cart roads, chariot routes and navigation routes were looked after by the state.

• Communication facilities provided favourable atmosphere for economic growth.

• Maritime trade was utilized for supporting the urban centres.

• Barter system was active at that time.

• Atamana, the Nishka and the Krishna were name of different coins

Trade Association-

Shreshthi-

• It was the name of trade association during this time.

• In some other literature of post Vedic age, mention of Gana and Ganapati are also found.

Proto-urbanization-

• Although the term nagara is used in later Vedic texts we can trace only the faint beginnings of towns towards the end of the later Vedic period.

• Hastinapur and Kausambi (Allahabad) can be regarded as primitive towns belonging to the end of the Vedic period.

4.Polity

• Jana was used in the sense of people or tribe in the Rigvedic period, but now the concept of janapada emerged.

• Janapada meant the area where the tribe settled.

• The word rashtra was also used for the first time in the Later Vedic texts

New Kingdoms-

• The new kingdoms were the Kurus, Panchalas, Kosala, Kashi, Videha, Magadha and Kalinga.

• The Kuru-Panchalas were the most prominent in the new age.

• They were considered to the best representatives of the Vedic culture, speakers of the best Sanskrit, performers of sacrifices with perfection, the best kings and patrons of learning

The Maghada

• The kingdom of Magadha located in South Bihar finds mention in Atharva Veda along with the kingdom of Anga (East Bihar).

• The people of Magadha were described as Vratyas in the Atharva Veda and regarded as out castes and nomads.

• This kingdom was probably colonized  by the members of Kuru – Panchala tribe.

• The new Kings started according themselves with new titles like; Adhiraj, Rajadhiraj, Samrat, Ekrat, Chakravarti, Sarvabhaum etc.

• The rajanya which already was a superior lineage during the Rigvedic period, now became the ‘Kshatriya’ i.e. those who held power over dominions, which is the literal meaning of the word Kshatriya.

• Monarchy was Hereditary but sometime elected king was also seen

Tribal Assemblies

• The sabha became more important than the samiti during this period.

• The women were no longer permitted to participate on the Sabha.

• It appears that Sabha had two types of members.

• Some members only attended some vital meetings and some attended every meeting.

• Members, who attended every meeting, were called Sabhasad.

• The Vidatha completely disappeared

Officials-

Purohita -

• The chief priest and counselor of the King

Rajanya -

• The nobles and the representative of the Warrior class

Kshattri -

• The Chamberlain Govikartana - the Chief huntsman

Palagala -

• The courier or messenger

The Takshan -

• The carpenter

Ratnakara -

• The Chariotmaker

Senani -

• The Commander of the army

Mahishi -

• The Chief queen of the King

Parivkriti -

• Descendent wife

Grammani -

• The Village headman

Suta -

• The Charioteer

Samgrahitri -

• The treasurer

Bhagadugha-

• Collector of taxes

Akshavapa -

• The Superintendent of dicing

Angrakshak -

• Bodyguard

Dharmadhyaksha -

• Justice

Ugra -

• Police official

Other-

• There were no regular institutions for justice.

• The king administrered criminal justice.

• Sometimes the king could delegate the responsibility of imparting justice to a royal officer Rajanya

• At the local level the cases either decided by the chiefs of dominant tribes or by the assemblies or by the Gramyavadin the village judge.

• The Sthapati was concerned with the administration of aboriginal tribes.

• Satapati was entrusted to look after the administration of a group of hundred villages.

• There was no evidence of standing army in the later Vedic period.

• However, it seems that the army was confined to the Kinsmen

Taxation-

• Bhagadugha was Collector of taxes.

• Bhag, Sulk and Bali were the taxes collected by the king.

• The Brahmanas were exempted from the taxes.

5.Society-

Gotra-

• The concept of Gotra appeared in this period Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor and marriages could not take place between couples belonging to the same Gotra

Family-

• The heads of the family is called Kulapati.
• Patriarchal dominance increased in this period.

Varna System-

• The later Vedic Society came to be divided into four Varnas or castes called Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.

• During this period Caste become hereditary rather than occupational.

• Maximum benefit of aforesaid division of society accrued to Brahman that’s why they managed to propound theory of Varna system coming out from deity body from mouth to feet.

• Caste exogamy and rigid social hierarchy developed.

The Purusa Sukta in the tenth book of Rig Veda mentions the four-fold division of society.

Brahmins: priests, scholars, and teachers 

Kshatriyas: rulers, warriors, and administrators

Vaishyas: agriculturalists and merchants

Shudras: laborers and service providers

There is a mention of the Ashramas or the four stages of life—

• That of brahmacharya or bachelor student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or hermit and sanyasi or ascetic who completely renounces worldly life.

• Only the first three were clearly defined in the later Vedic texts; the last or the fourth stage was not well-established, though, ascetic life was not unknown.

Position of Women-

• During the later Vedic Age the women lost their earlier importance and status.

• They lost their right of Upanayana to perform religious rites and the right to attend meetings of the tribal assembly (Sabha).

• Polygramy or marrying of several wives by a man became a social vice.

• Dowry and child marriage was practiced during this time.

• There were instances of Sati.

But some women still had dominance through their intellect like-

• Celebrated women like Gargi and Maitreyi.

• Gargi was one of the learned persons summoned by king Janaka to attend the Philosophical conference convened by him.

• The Upanisadas refer to a intellectual conversation between Maitreyi and her husband, Yajnavalkya

Marriage-

• Inter caste marriage were not that much encouraged except few

These intercaste marriages were approved in two types: -

Anuloma

• Vivaha in which the groom belong to the higher casteand the bride to lower caste

Pratiloma

• Vivaha in which the bride belonged to higher casteand the groom lower caste

• 8 types of marriage were there

Dress and Ornaments-

• The dress consisted of three garments viz. under garments -nivi.

• Lower garments and Upper Garments called Adhivasa

Food -

• There is change in food also. Brihi i.e. rice was in use in this period.

• In Rigvedic period, barley was main food.

• In this period, animal meat was not very popular in society.

• People also took certain intoxicant drinks like Sura which has prepared from certain herbs and plants.

• Use of alcohol too was not considered good

6.Religion-

The old gods, Varuna, Indra, Agni, Surya etc. of early Vedic age lost their importance

• Pushan who protected cattle in the former period now became the god of the shudras.

• The new gods like Prajapati, Siva, Rudra, and Vishnu became prominent.

• Prajapati, the creater now occupied the supreme position among the Vedic gods.

• Rudra the god of animals and Vishnu, the preserver and protector of the people enjoyed the next position.

• Appearance of semi deities such as the Apsaras, Gandharvas and Kinnaras and the adoption of animal worship are another change of this period.

• Detailed and complicated rituals came into existence

Bali-

• Sacrifice became the all important thing in worship.

• Animal sacrifice caused the destruction of cattle wealth

Yagna -

• In later Vedic period, scope of ritual expanded and Brahman’s position improved.

• For different types of yagna, different types of priest were required.

• The later Vedic Aryans also emphasized on austerity (Tapa) and celibacy (Brahmacharya).

• To guide the life of the people during the later Vedic or Hindu society on the path of morality, the spiritual thinkers laid down nearly 40 rites i.e. samskara performed by them in course of their life under the guidance of priests.

Some of the most important sanskararas are given below.

1. Garbhadhana

2. Pumsamvana

3. Simantannayana

4. Jatakarma

5. Namakarana

6. Anna- Prashana.

7. Chudakarma

8. Upanayana

9. Vidyarambha

10. Vivaha etc.