Vedic age

The Vedic Age-

• After the decline of Indus civilization, the civilization which emerged is known as Aryan or Vedic civilization.

• The Advent of the Aryans constitutes a land mark in the history of ancient India.

• Their civilization known as Vedic Age civilization.

• The Aryans entered India through the north-Western passes and at first settled in the Saptasindhu region of Punjab

Saptasindhu -

• The seven rivers mentioned in the Rig-Veda are Indus, Vitasta (Vehit/Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Prusni/Eravati (Ravi) Vipasha (Beas), Sutudri (Sutlej) and Sarasvati (which dried up)

Division of Vedic Age-

The Vedic Age has been divided into two parts -

A.The Early Vedic Age (1500-1000 B.C.)

B.The Later Vedic Age (1000 – 600 B.C.)

A.The Early Vedic Age (1500-1000 B.C.)

Vedic age is also known as aryans age and there are many theories regarding the advent of aryans in India.

The Aryans-

• The word Arya means `noble', 'respected', 'high born', 'elderly', ‘cultured' etc. The north India was referred as Aryavarta i.e. the country where the Aryans live.

• First, Arya word was used by Veda writers.

• They referred to themselves as Arya (superior) and opponents with Dasyu or Daas.

• They used to consider themselves noble and superior than non Aryans.

Aryan tribes-

• The chief Aryan tribes that are mentioned in the Rig-Veda were the Purus, the Yadus, the Turvasas, the Anus, the Drahus, the Bharatas and the Srinjayas.

List of Aryan Tribes-

• The Bharatas and Purus, the two important tribes, came together and formed the kuru people.

• From the fringes of the doab, they moved to its upper portion called Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus. Later they coalesced with the panchalas.

• Together with the kurus, they occupied Delhi and the upper and middle ports of Ganga – Jamuna divide and established their capital at Hastinapur

Non -Aryan Tribes-

• Rigveda has mention of some non Aryan tribe’s name and their leader’s name.

• For example- Simyu, Pishach, Kikat etc were their species and Pishu, Dhuni, Chumuti, Shambar etc were their leaders.

• They were civilized and content, but their military style, strategy and arms and weapons were of inferior quality than that of Aryans

Settlement a of Aryans-

• The early Aryans knew Sapta-sindhu and the neighbouring region.

• The geographical area eventually occupied by the Rig-Vedic tribes is clearly indicated by the mention of certain rivers.

• Initially Aryans occupied the Punjab and the Delhi region while settling in India, the Aryans had to confront on one side within dense forests and the local inhabitants on the other

Expansion and conflict -

1.Bharata Tribe-

1.1 Devodasa-

• Divodasa ("heaven's servant") is a king in the Rigveda (celebrated for his liberality and protected by Indra and the Ashvins in the Rigveda.

• He is the father of the famous king Sudas  (of the Battle of the Ten Kings). 

• Pijavana is the other name of Divodasa according to Rigveda

Battle of Divodasa with Shambhara-

Shambhara-

• The Rig Veda mentions the rivers which flow through Himachal Pradesh.

• The text also talks about Shambara, the powerful king of these hills before the advent of the Aryans, and his 99 strong forts in the region between the Beas and the Yamuna rivers.

The Battle-

• According to the 8th book of the Rg Veda, King Divodasa destroyed the 99 towns of the Dasa Chief Sambara and killed Sambara and Varci in the country of Udabraja.

• The Vedic Rishis used to ascribe these heroic deeds to the Vedic God Indra by saying that Indra rent the 99 cities of Sambara for Divodasa and “saved Divodasa with wonderful means of safety”

1.2 Sudas-

• According to Witzel, Divodāsa was the father of Sudās, but he includes Pijavana on the grid of Bharata descent as a possible ancestor between Divodāsa and Sudās.

• Sudas is mentioned in Rigveda as the chief of Bharatas who conquered the ten-kings confederacy.

• It is further mentioned that the king replaced Vashistha with Visvamitra as his priest, thereby creating a rivalry between the two Sudas’s capital city was on the Sarasvati River.

• His queen was named Sudevi

The Battle of Ten Kings-

• The seventh book of Rigveda describes a historical event that took place in an empire – on the south-eastern front on the banks of Yamuna and on the western front on the banks of River Ravi.

• It was fought between Sudas and Other Tribal Kings.

The list of confederate kings and chieftans involved in this war is actually slightly over ten, but was referred to roughly as ‘dasha’ (ten) as a shorthand in the Rg Veda:

• Puru: One of the major tribal confederations in the Rigveda.

• Yadu.

• Turvasa.

• Anu: Some place them in the Parusni (Ravi) area.

• Druhyu: Some align them with the Gandhari.

• Alina: One of the tribes defeated by Sudas at the Dasarajna and it is suggested that they lived to the NE of Nuristan, because the land was mentioned by the Chinese pilgrim Hiouen Thsang.

• Paktha (‘Pathan’; ‘Pashthun’).

• Bhalinas: Fought against Sudas in the Dasarajna battle and it is argued that they lived in the Bolan Pass area.

• Siva.

• Visanin.

• Simyu.

• Vaikarna and others.

War took place in 2 phases-

Phase-1

• The first phase of the battle took place on the banks of the river Ravi (then Parusni) near Manusa, west of Kurukshetra Between The Bharata King along with their priest( are respectively mentioned as Sudas Paijavana and Vasistha) and Tribal kings.

• Though seemingly an unequal battle, going by the numbers, Sudas decisively won against the tribal alliance

Phase - 2

Yamuna River Battle –

• It took place at eastern border of Bharata kingdom after the war was supposedly done, Sudas was attacked on the east by King Bheda (and his Ajas, Sigrus and Yaksus) while Sudas was occupied on the Parusni.

• Sudas defeated them too

This group of 10 may have been led by King Chayamana (of Abhivarta – present Iran)

1. Various theories regarding origin of Aryans

Central Asian origin -

• Many scholar believed that Aryans were mainly from central asia.

• Major supporter for this principle is Prof Maxmuller.

• As per him, there is lot of similarity between Aryan literature Rigveda and Iranian Jindawesta.

• This similarity proves that Iranians and Indian Aryans used to live at any common place before and later on settled at different places.

• This view is supported by the discovery of an inscription at BoghazKoi, dated 1400 B.C.; which throws light on the age of the Rig- Veda.

• A treaty of the Hittite king of C.1380 B.C. mentions the rig Vedic gods such as `Indra', 'Mitra', Varuna'.

• This tablet also mentionssome term which are in pure Sanskrit

European origin-

• Many scholars are of the view that they had Europe as their origin.
• Sir William Jones also supported this logic.

• He showed similarity between Greek, Latin, Gothic, Sanskrit and Farsi languages.

• For example, father is called Pitri in Sanskrit, Pater in Latin, father in English and Watar in German.

• Same similarity is found in the word, mother

• Supporter of this theory includes- P. Gailes, Penka, Nehring and Sir William Jones

Arctic origin-

• According to B.G.Tilak, the Aryans came from the arctic region in around 10,000 BC and gradually migrated to India around 4000 B.C.

• He extensively studied Rigveda and Jindawesta and reached on conclusion that native place of Aryans was arctic or north pole

Indian origin-

• Many scholars believe that Aryans did not come from outside India, rather they were locals only.

Supporters-

• Avinash Chandra Das, Ganganath Jha, DA Vrived, Rajbali Pandey, LD kalla .

• They say that Rigveda has glorified mention of Saptasindhu. Hence, this could be the original native of Aryans.

Other Views-

• Some scholars like Ganganath Jha are of the opinion that the original home of the Aryans was Brahmarshidesha.

• SC Das and Sampoornanand consider entire Saptasindhu region as Aryans native place.

• D.S. Trivedi placed it as Multan was their homeland; while L.D.Kalla held that Kashmir and the Himalayan regions may have been their home land.

• According to Mc- Donall the original home of the Aryans was south east Europe.

2.The sources of the Vedic age-

2.1 - Literature sources

Among the literary sources we may first refer to the four Vedas:

• Rigveda.

• Samveda.

• Yajurveda.

• Atharvaveda.

The word ‘veda’ means knowledge. The Rig Veda is the oldest of the Vedic literature.

• It was composed in about 1500BC. It consists of 1,028 slokas, which are divided into ten books.

• At first it was transferred orally from one generation to the other along with the other Vedas and is therefore called Sruti or ‘that which is heard’.

• Many centuries later, it was written down.

• The Rig Veda gives us an insight into the political, social, economic and religious life of the Early Vedic period.

• The later Vedic literature belongs to a period C. 1000- 600 B.C.to which belong the remaining Vedas and their branches viz. the Yajurveda, the Atharvaveda, the Samaveda and the Brahmanas (are the explanatory prose manuals) the Aranyakas (forest books) and the Upanishadas (are commentaries appended to the Aryankas)

3.Socio-Cultural,Economic and other details of Early vedic age-

3.1 - Polity and Society

The political life of the Vedic age was classified as follows: ·

Family-

• The smallest unit of the administration was the family, which was headed by the oldest person in the home.

• The tradition was to have a joint family. 

• Normally, they followed monogamy, but at times, we also find polygamy. Probably, this practice was prevalent in non Aryans.

• Marriage between brother and sister was prohibited.

• There was no child marriage.

• Girls too followed celibacy like boys and married in youth.

• Women were not kept uneducated.

• Some women were so bluestocking that their mantras have been included in Vedic Sanhita also.

• Lopamudra, Apalatreyi etc are many women who are sages of Vedic Sukta.

• Mention of many knowledgeable ladies have come in ancient literatures like Godha, Ghosha, Vishwavara, Aditi, Sarma etc.

• Mention of elementary meditators like Gargi, Maitreyi have come up in Upanishad.

• They were considered as co-partners with her husband. Marriage used to be solemnized by self acceptance, only women used to choose their husband themselves.

• There are plenty description of swayamvar of princesses and in ancient literature

Niyoga-

• Widows could either remarry or was permitted to co-habit with her brother in law until the birth of a son.
• This system was known as `Niyoga'.

Village-

• Several families made a village.

• The head of the village was called the ‘Gramani’.

• The root of the village administrative system was the Gramani but the Rig Veda is silent on the matter of its election system. 

Vish-

• Several villages made a Vish.

• The highest officer of the Vish was called Vishpati.

Jan-

• Several Vishs made a Jan. The highest officer of the Jan was called Gop.

• Usually, the king himself would be a Gop. 

Nation-

• The highest political unit was the nation.

• A country was called nation or rashtra

Names of Heads of Different units-

Rashtra -

• Rajan/Gopa/Samrat

Janas/janapada -

• Jyeshta

Vish  -

• Vishpati

Gram-  

• Gramani

Family -

• Kulapa

Tribal Organisation:

• The Aryans favored a monarchical form of Government.

• This had emerged through the evolution of the Patriarchal groups of tribal Organizations.

• The Chief of the tribe was the Patriarch.

• Due to the growing need for Protection of the most capable patriarch was elected as the Chief who gradually assumed kingship.

• At the beginning, kingship was elective but later on it became hereditary

The King-

• The highest officer of the nation was the king.

• The morality of the king was very high.

• Kingship was hereditary.

• The chief work of the king was to safeguard his nation and citizens.

• He had to be proficient in the management of soldiers and very just.

• Job of electing king was in the hands of people called Rajkritah( electors of king).

Rajkritah-

• were called king themselves.

• Person elected at the post of king, was considered to be leader of such Rajashrayah Rajkritah.

• There is no clarity from Veda as to who these Rajkritah were.

• There were many officers for assisting the king in his administrative work

The ministers of the king-

• The king appointed various ministers for running the administration efficiently.

• The foremost among them was the Senani, the supreme commander of the armed forces

Officials-

During early Vedic period, king was assisted by purohit and senani.

Purohit -

• He was a learned man who guided the king and people in all matters of religion, social customs, law, morality etc.

Senani-

• Hewas the leader of the army

Tribal Assemblies-

The Sabha-

• It was a body of the tribal elders. It was an assembly of the distinguished great persons.

• Members of Sabha were called Sabhasad.

• Women called Sabhavati also attended this assembly.

• It was basically a kin-based assembly and the practice of women attending it was stopped in later-Vedic time.

• Sabha has been called as ‘Narishta’ in Atharvaveda.

• Literary meaning of Narishta is—non violate able.

• Whatever used to be decided by majority was considered non violate able and hence Sabha was called Narishta

The Samiti-

• It was a popular assembly, a representative body of the whole Tribe.

• It seems that it got its importance towards later vedic age.

• It is also assumed that Rajan was elected by The Samiti.

• It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned with religious ceremonies  and prayers.

Difference in the composition of Sabha and Samiti

• This difference is not clear by Vedic Sanhita but It appears that Sabha was relatively smaller body and only senior people were its members and its main job was to deliver justice

The vidatha

• The vidatha was a form of assembly referred to 122 times in the Rig Veda and 22 times in the Atharva Veda.

• Translated as a "family council," the vidatha included women and elders as participants.

• The vidatha collectively worshiped Vedic deities such as Agni and Indra, offering sacred food and singing their praises.

• Occasionally the vidatha selected a priest to sing or lead the singing.

• Over the centuries, references to the vidatha gradually disappeared

The parishad -

• Another form of assembly referred to in the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda was a parishad made up of companions who collectively owned cattle, worshiped Agni, and shared a common leader.

• The term parishadi implied the inclusion of women as members of the parishad.

Social Stratification-

• The early Vedic society consisted of four varnas—Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra.

• There was no complication in the varna system.

• The basis of varna was perhaps work rather than birth.

• It is mentioned in the Rig Veda that, ‘I am a sculptor, my father is a doctor and my mother grinds cereals in the house.’

The word ‘varna’ was later used to refer to the social division, dividing society into the following four occupational groups:

• The brahmins or the priests performed religious ceremonies and prayers and imparted education. 

• The kshatriyas or warrior class (to which the king also belonged) fought wars and protected the tribe from danger. 

• The vaishyas carried on agriculture, industry and trade, producing goods for the society. 

• The sudras, comprising the dasas, were the labourers and did menial jobs. They were dark-skinned.

This system was flexible and there were no restrictions with regard to the occupation, intermarriage and inter-dining between these classes

The Ashrama system-

Ashrama is a system of stages of life discussed in Hindu texts of the ancient and medieval eras

The four asramas are-

Brahmacharya (student)

• This was the first stage of human life which began with the performance of the Upanayana ceremony.

Gṛhastha (householder)

• The Gristhashrama of a person began with his marriage.

• He was supposedto perform three Purushartha of Dharma, Artha and Kama

Vanaprastha (forest walker/forest dweller)

• When man crossed the age limit of 50, after the children needed no further parental care and attention and had settled down,he was expected to prepare himself for retirement from the wordly life by giving up sexual pursuits and living in forests

Sannyasa (renunciate)

• The stage commenced at the age of seventy five.

• A sanyasi lived a detached social life.

• The aim of the life was described as Purushartha' i.e. a fourfold principles.

• Every person was to perform the four Purusharthaor noble aims in his life.

They were-

• Dharma meaning righteous way of living and piety.

• Artha meaning acquiring wealth by honest means.

• Kama means the desire for enjoyment. It means enjoying wordly pleasures and promoting arts.

• Moksha means the spiritual freedom, the self-realization, and the salvation of soul.

Dress and ornaments-

Vasa and Adivasa-

• During the early Vedic period, people used two garments

• The lower garment was known as Vasa and the upper Adhivasa.

• An undergarment known as Nivi was also introduced during the later Vedic period.

• The garments were made of wool, cotton and silk andwere also dyed.

• Head- dress, the turban was used by both men and women. Both plaited their hair.

Food and Drinks-

• Various dietary preparations of rice, barley, milk and ghee are mentioned in Vedic literature.

• Sura and Soma were two Important drinks

3.2 - Economy of vedic age-

• The Early Vedic society was pastoral which menas cattle rearing was the dominant occupational activity.

• A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce.

• Cow was given lots of importance in Rigveda

Some terms related to Cow-

Gomat-

• A wealthy man who owned many cattle was called gomat

Gopati-

• The raja or the chief is called the ‘gopati’ or one who protects cows

Godhuli and Gavyuti -

• In the Rigveda, Godhuli is used as a term for a measure of time. Distance is called gavyuti

Duhitri-

• A daughter is called duhitr or one who milks the cows

Aghanya-

• Importance of cow in economic life was such, that it was considered Aghanya (not to be killed).

• Agriculture and animal husbandry was main base of economic life of Vedic period. Cow, bull, horse, donkey, dog, goat, sheep etc were fostered majorly.

• For ploughing land, they used bulls.

• For increasing productivity of farm, even fertilizer was used.

• For irrigation, water of lake, reservoir, river and well was used.

• For watering farms, small canals and drain were made

Crops-

• Rice, wheat and barley were the chief crops.

• Cotton, several minor crops and oil seeds were grown Vegetable, fruits etc. were inabundance but we find very less reference of these in early vedic age.

• ‘Yava’ was the name of Barley

Some of the Terms related to Agriculture-

A.Different Seasons-

• Karsana(Ploughing).

• Vapana(Sowing).

• Lavana (Harvesting).

• Mardana(Threshing).

B.Different type of Land-

• Apnasvati (fertile land).

• Artana (Arid land).

C.Names of Different crops-

• Virhi (Rice).

• Godhuma (wheat ).

• Yava (barley).

D.Agricultural tools

• Datra,Data,Srni,Jeta - Agricultural tools like Sickle etc.

Other Economic activities-

Trade-

• The early Vedic people had developed trade and commerce.

• They carried trade with members of same tribal and also with other tribes.

• Trade was carried along the river route.

• In Vedic Sanhita, mention of boats has also appeared at several places.

• In these, some of the boats were very huge.

• Probably, in Vedic period also, they used to go various places for trade by road and water route.

• The principal medium of trade was barter and the cows were used as a means of exchange and also Gold called Nishka was also used

Pani-

• Commerce was largely controlled by the people called Pani and probably they were also called Asur

Bali-

• Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and prestations, i.e. bali, to the victorious chiefs by the defeated or the subordinate groups.

Occupation-

• Though major medium of Aryan occupation was farming, yet gradually other art works and business were growing.

• Takshman (carpenter), Hiranyakar (jeweler), Karmkaar (metal sculpturer), Charmakar (cobbler), Vaya (weaver) etc many occupations have been described in Vedas

Industries-

• Metals like gold, silver, copper and bronze was known to them.

• The metal workers designed all types of weapons, implements and household utensils.

• Ayas which in later Sanskrit meant iron is found in Rigveda.

• However, this A'yas may have been copper, bronze or iron.

• Among the cottage industries, spinning, weaving, sewing, making of mats from grass or reeds etc. were chiefly done by women.

Religion of vedic age -

• The mighty elements of nature were regarded by the Aryans as their gods.

• In the Rig Veda there are all together 33 divinities; of them, 11 are of heaven (sky), 11 of mid air (Antariksha) and 11 of the earth (Prithivi)

A.Heaven or The Celestial Gods:

• The Celestial Gods of the Aryans were the Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitri, Pushan, Vishnu, Aditi, Usha and Ashwins etc.

Some of them are-

Dyaus Varuna -

• He Was the God of vast blue sky, the shining God of heaven

Vishnu-

• He Is credited to have covered the whole universe in 3 strides.

• During later period he occupied the prime position of Varuna

Rudra and Marut Solar deities

• They Were Gods of storm and winds.

• The solar God was worshipped in various forms such as Surya, Mitra, Savitri, Ashwins, Pushan and Aditi

Mitra-

• God of Light

Adit-

• Female deity relieving man from bondage

Usha-

• The dawn, female deity corresponding with beautiful early morning.

Ashwin-

• Physician of gods

Pushan -

• He Was the charioteer Surya and protecting deity of roads

B.The Aerial Gods

Indra-

• Nearly one fourth of the hymns of Rigveda are devoted for the praise of this deity.

• He was regarded as the protector of the Gods and therefore occupied the prominent position among the Vedic deities

Rudra - 

• He was the deity associated with thunder and storm and regarded as fierce, mighty and auspicious

Marut and Vayu -

• They were other Gods of storm and wind. Parjanya —was the God of rain

C.The Terrestrial Gods-

Agni-

• Was regarded as the chief deity among the terrestrial Gods.

• He was next to Indra.

• He was treated as a messenger who conveyed the ablutions to heavenly Gods which were offered by thepeople at the time of sacrifices.

Soma-

• Is another deity who inspired literary qualities and protected plants and forests.

• Soma is also identified with Moon who is associated with vegetation.

Saraswati-

• At first was regarded as the river Goddess, but later on as Goddess of learning.

Among other deities on the earth mention may be made of Prajapati, Vishwakarma, Dhatri, Vidhatri, Shraddha and Manju.

• Sacrifices occupied a prominent place in the Vedic ritual.

• The main purpose was to appease the gods in order to obtain boons from them for the welfare of family, cattle and for good health.

• Recitations of hymns of prayers and offering or sacrifices were common religious practices.

• The Vedic Aryans had no special doctrines about life after death.

• They felt that death was not the end of all things.

• After his death a man was supposed to reach the Yama‟s kingdom.